CBSE Class 12

Here we are providing NCERT Solutions for Class 12 English Vistas Chapter 1 The Third Level. Students can get Class 12 English The Third Level NCERT Solutions, Questions and Answers designed by subject expert teachers.

The Third Level NCERT Solutions for Class 12 English Vistas Chapter 1

The Third Level NCERT Text Book Questions and Answers

The Third Level Reading with insight

Question 1.
What does the third level refer to?
Answer:
The third level is the world somewhere between desire or dream and reality. It is a world of fantasy that we create for ourselves and occasionally seek to escape to. Most of the time it is a picture of the simple past of our forefathers, who, we believe were happier. It is an escapist’s world which one weaves around to be off the current-day problems, worries, anxieties and tensions.

Question 2.
Would Charley ever go back to the ticket-counter on the third level to buy tickets to Galesburg for himself and his wife?
Answer:
Time travel is a temporary relief that man seeks to escape from the rush of his present existence. It was a world of fantasy that Charley too had created. So, he exchanged all his savings for 1894 currency to buy tickets from the third level to Galesburg, Illinois. However, he could not find the third level again as it did not exist.

The Third Level Reading With Insight

Question 1.
Do you think that the third level was a medium of escape for Charley? Why?
Answer:
Life today is full of insecurity, fear and worries and time travel is man’s way of escaping from it. Occasionally, man seeks escape into the world of fantasy and his nostalgic memories, the happier • times of the past. Yes, the third level was Charley’s medium of escape from the mad rat race of modern times.

Question 2.
What do you infer from Sam’s letter to Charley?
Answer:
Sam’s letter shows man’s pining for the simple, less harassing and a happier era. He too had found respite from the hurry and worry of modern life in time travel. Sam had learnt to transport himself into the time period of his ancestors whose quality of life he considered was better than their present existence.

Question 3.
The modern world is full of insecurity, fear, war, worry and stress. What are the ways in which we attempt to overcome them?
Answer:
Man often creates in his fantasy a world which is somewhere between his desire and reality, and often seeks respite by transporting himself to it mentally. Time travel is another way of overcoming stress; we travel back in time to the past which we believe was a quieter and happier era. Nostalgic memories too are often a way of escape from the harassing present.

Question 4.
Do you see an intersection of time and space in the story?
Answer:
Yes, the story clearly shows an intersection of time and space. Firstly, the first two levels of Grand Central Station were located in the present time while the third level existed in the 1890s. Secondly Charley and his wife, Louisa, live in the present time yet Charley goes to get old currency to buy tickets to go to the Galesburg of 1894. The old architecture of the platform at the third level is different from the platform of the modern times. The archaic manner of dressing by the people and the newspaper, The World, dated June 11, 1894 also overlap with Charley’s real time world and existence. Finally, the letter that was mailed to Charley’s Grandfather on 18 July, 1894 highlights the intersection of time and space.

Question 5.
Apparent illogicality sometimes turns out to be a futuristic projection? Discuss.
Answer:
It is true that apparent illogicality sometimes turns out to be a futuristic projection. A good number of scientific inventions sounded ridiculous and absurd till some brilliant minds gave them a concrete shape. Before the Wright Brothers invented the first aeroplane, nobody could have dared to believe that man could fly. There are many other examples of inventions which were conceived in dreams but now are part of our everyday reality. All this emphasizes that fantasies of one point of time that seem illogical may turn out to be revolutionary things that change the future of the mankind. It would not be far-fetched to think about railway stations fitted with time-machine devices from one era to another. It is just a matter of time.

Question 6.
Philately helps keep the past alive. Discuss other ways in which this is done. What do you think of the human tendency to constantly move between the past, the present and the future?
Answer:
Besides philately, there are numerous other ways to keep the past alive. Collecting historical artefacts, paintings and statues in a museum, collecting and reading books, collecting stamps, first day covers, etc. are all a few ways of revisiting history.

Fond memories of the past are often kept alive through photographic collections, letters, etc. Man seeks refuge in the nostalgic memories, the happier times of the past. He transports himself to the world by travelling through time to escape the present. In fact, he is constantly moving between past for escape, and present and future.

This capacity to oscillate between the past, present and future is a great intellectual gift. This human tendency enables him to plan for the future in the present by reaping benefits from the past. Such a tendency helps in ensuring acceptance of the impact of important decisions taken at any point of time and learning from them.

Question 7.
You have read ‘Adventure’ by Jayant Narlikar in Hornbill Class XI. Compare the interweaving of fantasy and reality in the two stories.
Answer:
In ‘Adventure’ Jayant Narlikar expressed that many worlds exist simultaneously though they appear to be separated by time. He conveyed that the other world also existed and prospered with the world we are aware of.

In The Third Level, Charley, a young New York commuter wandering Grand Central Station by accident, finds a gateway that leads to the past of 1894. Charley attempts to escape the rat race by buying a one way ticket to his childhood town of Galesburg, Illinois. But circumstances forced him to postpone his plan to escape to the past.

The Third Level Extra Questions and Answers

The Third Level Short Answer Questions

Question 1.
How does the narrator describe himself? What made him take the subway from Grand Central?
Answer:
The narrator describes that he is Charley, 31. He is wearing a tan gabardine suit and a straw hat with a fancy band. One night last summer, he worked late at the office. So, he was in a hurry to be at his apartment. He took the subway from Grand Central because it was faster than the bus.

Question 2.
How does the narrator describe the first two levels of the Grand Central?
Answer:
The narrator went down the steps of the Grand Central from Vanderbilt Avenue to the first level. From there one can take trains like the twentieth century. Then he walked down another flight to the second level. From there the suburban trains leave for various destinations.

Question 3.
The narrator got lost once when he ducked into an arched doorway heading for the subway. Where did he come out?
Answer:
The narrator says that he has been in and out of Grand Central hundreds of times. He always bumps into new doorways, stairs and corridors. Once he got into a one-mile-long tunnel and came out in the Roosevelt Hotel lobby. Another time he came up in an office building on Forty-sixth street, three blocks away.

Question 4.
What does the narrator think of Grand Central? What does it symbolize?
Answer:
The narrator thinks that Grand Central is growing like a tree. It pushes out new corridors and staircases like roots. There are long tunnels under the city on their ways to Times Square and to Central Park.
The Grand Central symbolizes the labyrinth that this world is with its intricate and tangled pathways. It has always been an exit, a way to escape.

Question 5.
What strange things did the narrator see when he reached the third level of Grand Central?
Answer:
Charley noticed a difference in the way things looked at the third level of the Grand Central Station. It was smaller, with fewer ticket counters and had an old look of the 1890s with wooden booths, dim open-flame gaslights, brass spittoons and an old-style locomotive with a funnel shaped stack. Even the people’s attire was old fashioned and men had funny handle-bar mustaches and sideburns. The whole setting was in contrast to the modern times.

Question 6.
How did the man on the third level appear to the narrator?
Answer:
The narrator saw a man pulling a gold watch from his vest pocket. He snapped open the cover, glanced at his watch and frowned. He wore a derby hat, a black four-button suit with tiny lapels and had a big, black handlebar mustache.

Question 7.
What did the narrator do to make sure that he was actually at the third level of Grand Central?
Answer:
The narrator walked over to a news boy. He glanced at the stack of newspapers. It was The World and The World had not been published for years. The lead story was about President Cleveland. Later on, he confirmed from the public library files that the newspaper was dated 11th June 1894.

Question 8.
Why did the narrator turn towards the ticket windows? Why did he run back from there?
Answer:
The narrator turned towards the ticket window to buy tickets to go to Galesburg, Illinois, in the year of 1894. When Charley produced money to pay for the two tickets, the clerk stared at him as the currency did not match with the currency of that time. He accused him of trying to cheat him and threatened to hand him over to the police. The narrator turned away thinking that there was nothing nice about jail even in 1894.

Question 9.
How does the narrator describe Galesburg, Illinois?
Answer:
The narrator states that Galesburg, Illinois, is a wonderful town with big old frame houses, huge lawns and big trees. Summer evenings were twice as long. People sat out on their lawns, the men smoking cigar and talking quietly, the women waving palm-leaf fans. It means the people had lived in peace and harmony and had a lot of leisure time.

Question 10.
What did the narrator do the next day?
Answer:
The narrator withdrew his entire money from the bank. He bought old-style currency to buy two tickets to Galesburg. He got less than two hundred old-style bills for his three hundred dollars. He consoled himself for having got less money by the fact that life in 1894 Galesburg was quite cheaper as compared to the modern life.

Question 11.
How does the narrator’s psychiatrist friend react to the narrator’s statement that the third level exists?
Answer:
The narrator’s psychiatrist friend, Sam Weiner, says it is ‘a waking-dream-wish fulfilment’. He says that the narrator is unhappy and the modern world is full of insecurity, fear, war and worry. So, he wants to escape and has created an imaginary third level.

Question 12.
How did Louisa react when the narrator told his wish to go to the third level to buy tickets?
Answer:
When the narrator told Louisa about his wish she got pretty worried. She was a loving and a caring wife. She got alarmed at Charley’s claim of having been to the third level. His exchanging the currency was a cause of concern. She thought the third level to be a product of Charley’s imagination and asked him to stop looking for it. However, after some time they both started looking for the third level.

Question 13.
Why was going to the psychiatrist the obvious step? Did it help?
Answer:
Charley was convinced that there were three and not just two levels at the Grand Central Station, when all others claimed there were only two. Going to the psychiatrist was the obvious step because he wanted his opinion on whether it was insanity on his part to believe so. The psychiatrist too interpreted his delusion as a waking-dream wish fulfilment and, like his stamp collection, a temporary refuge from a world full of tensions, worries, insecurity, fear, war and envy.

Question 14.
Why could Charley not be convinced by his distractions that the third level was only a wish fulfilment?
Answer:
Charley could not be convinced that the third level was a temporary escape from reality through fantasy like stamp collection. He argued that his grandfather too was into stamp collection and he started Charley’s collection. He said that at that time people were content and lived in peaceful times and did not need to seek such refuge.

Question 15.
What happened to the narrator’s psychiatrist friend Sam Weiner? What do you deduce from it?
Answer:
One day the narrator’s psychiatrist friend Sam Weiner disappeared. He was a city boy. He always
said that he liked Galesburg very much and its sound. From this I deduce that even Sam was affected by the stress of modern living and sought temporary refuge by travelling through time.

Question 16.
Why was Charley sure that his psychiatrist friend had gone back to the year 1894 in Galesburg?
Answer:
Charley’s psychiatrist friend Sam had disappeared. One night going through his first-day covers,
Charley found one dated 1894 and with his Grandfather’s address on it. He opened and found inside a letter from Sam addressed to him. He invited him to the third level saying that it was worth it.

Question 17.
What is the first-day cover?
Answer:
At that time when a new stamp is issued, stamp collectors buy some of them and use them in order to mail envelopes to themselves and the postmark proves the date. That envelope is called the first- day cover.

Question 18.
Describe the first-day cover envelope that the narrator found among his collection.
Answer:
The first-day cover envelope was dated July 18, 1894. It was addressed to his grandfather in Galesburg. It carried a letter from Sam addressed to Charley. The stamp was a six-cent, dull brown, with a picture of President Garfield.

Question 19.
What had Sam Weiner written on the paper in the first-day cover?
Answer:
Sam Weiner had invited the narrator to the third level. It was worth it. It added that it was true, there existed the third level and he had found that. He had been there for two weeks. He could hear someone playing a piano, down the street. They were singing ‘Seeing Nelly Home’.

Question 20.
What did the narrator find about Sam Weiner when he went to the stamp and coin store?
Answer:
When the narrator went to the stamp and coin store he came to know that Sam had bought eight hundred dollars worth of old currency. That ought to set him up in a nice little hay, feed and grain business. He always wanted to do that. He didn’t want to go back to his old business. Not in Galesburg, Illinois, in 1894, Charley felt that the services of a psychiatrist would not be needed in Galesburg of 1894, his friend would be jobless there.

Question 21.
What is the evidence that Charley often sought escape through time travel?
Answer:
Charley had often bumped into new doorways, archways and stairways at the Grand Central and got lost. Once he had got into a long tunnel, about a mile long, and another time had landed in an office building on the Forty-sixth street, three blocks away. This makes it evident that Charley, often sought escape through wishful dreaming and in nostalgic memories. He often lived in a world of fantasy.

Question 22.
Discuss the irony at the end of the chapter.
Answer:
Charley had found the third level and desired to go back to the Galesburg of 1894. It is ironical that at the end, not Charley but his psychiatrist friend who had scorned his discovery, uses the third level to reach Galesburg of 1894 and tells Charley to keep looking for it.

The Third Level Long Questions and Answers

Question 1.
Describe the third level as a science fantasy?
Answer:
Science makes the impossible possible by giving a touch of realism to things that simply cannot happen in the real world under any circumstances. It explains a person’s perceptions, his difficulties and circumstances. Science fantasy has an aura of magic. In the lesson ‘The Third Level’ Charley’s fantasies are magical. He travels through time to Galesburg of 1894, the world of his childhood. He is stressed out by his modern living and takes refuge in his nostalgic memories, and at times he loses touch with reality. Such time travel is an essential element of all scientific fantasy.

Question 2.
Finney manages to not only capture the reader’s imagination, but also provides a clear example of time travel that does not confuse the reader. Discuss.
Answer:
‘The Third Level’ is a well-defined and convincing description of time travel. It can be divided into modern world and the world of the 1890s, the world of Grand Central Station of New York and the past world of Galesburg, Illinois. The narrator talks of the present world of 21st century through the references of New York Central, New York, New Haven, Hartford of Galesburg, Illinois of the 1890s in clearer terms. His visit to the third level of Grand Central and the physical description of this symbolize a flashback of the 19th century. So, the writer takes the reader in both the eras with care without confusing them. Thus, the third level is a beautiful interpretation of things through what, we call ‘the catastrophe theory’ as given in ‘The Adventure’ by Jayant Narlikar.

Question 3.
Do you think that the third level was a medium of escape for Charley? Why?
Answer:
The torture of stress, sense of insecurity and fear have made man an escapist who wants to run away from reality. He looks for a temporary refuge and starts pursuing different hobbies to divert his attention temporarily and give himself some comfort. The fast pace life has made Charley uneasy and restless. He yearned for peace and tranquillity. He turned to philately but could not find much relief. His efforts for escape resulted in his flight to the third level—a level of existence which he associated with tranquillity. His psychiatrist friend Sam, diagnosed Charley’s claim as a waking- dream wish fulfilment. Hence, the third level undoubtedly is a medium of escape for Charley.

Question 4.
What do you infer from Sam’s letter to Charley?
Answer:
Sam’s letter is a proof of his having reached the third level and of having been transported to Galesburg of 1894. The date 18th July 1894 and the content of the letter indicate that he too yearned for such an escape. Being equally insecure, he started believing in the existence of the third level and eventually found it. Galesburg always fascinated him with ample leisure and innocent happiness. He suggested to Charley and Louisa to keep on looking for it till they come across it. Sam’s letter also indicates the social life of Galesburg where people loved music, dance and socializing. But we are not sure that Sam’s letter is a mere figment of Charley’s imagination just like the third level or has he really transported to Galesburg of 1894. So, the whole idea of travel in time and multiple levels of reality is mind-boggling and so is Sam’s letter indeed.

Question 5.
The modern world is full of insecurity, fear, war, worry, tension and stress. What are the ways in which we attempt to overcome them?
Answer:
There is no doubt that the modern world is full of insecurity, fear, war, worry, tension, stress, anxiety and what not. Strangely, there is no escape from these things, yet people devise, find and invest different ways to escape from them. Some like liquor, some tranquillizers, some sleeping pills, some consult saints or seers or psychiatrists. Some daydream or listen to music or visit night parties or browse the Internet and fall down to tiredness and sleep. They awake to another day of tension and . anxiety. People like the narrator invent an imaginary world around them and get lost in it for the time being. But such a life is not for all the persons. It is for those who are a sensitive mind and look at life in a thoughtful manner, albeit, very seriously.

Question 6.
Did Sam really go to Galesburg or was it Charley’s figment of imagination?
Answer:
The third level at the Grand Central symbolizes man’s yearning to attain an ideal level of existence which is free from wars, worries, insecurities, tensions and a level which exudes calm, peace and tranquillity. Charley imagined this world briefly but could never get back to that world. His craving for such a world forced him to imagine things. He imagined that his psychiatrist friend, Sam, had succeeded in reaching there. He even saw a letter from Sam in his first-day cover collection. It was dated July 18, 1894 and posted to his grandfather’s address in Galesburg, Illinois. After this he redoubled his efforts to search the third level.

If it is only the imagination of Charley, then how do you explain Sam’s exchanging of currency at the coin shop? The fact that Sam too lived in a world of fantasy makes us understand that time travel was one way of escape for the modern man.

NCERT Solutions for Class 12 Biology Chapter 14 Ecosystem

These Solutions are part of NCERT Solutions for Class 12 Biology. Here we have given NCERT Solutions for Class 12 Biology Chapter 14 Ecosystem

Question 1.
Fill in the blanks
(a) Plants are called as ___ because they fix carbon dioxide.
(b) In an ecosystem dominated by trees, the pyramid (of numbers) is ___ type.
(c) In aquatic ecosystem, the limiting factor for the productivity is ___
(d) Common detritivores in our ecosystem are ____
(e) The major reservoir of carbon on earth is ___
Solution:
(a) producers
(b) inverted or spindle
(c) light
(d) saprotrophs
(e) oceans

Question 2.
Which one of the following has the largest population in a food chain?
(a) Producers
(b) Primary consumers
(c) Secondary consumers
(d) Decomposer’s
Solution:
(d) decomposer’s

Question 3.
The second trophic level in a lake is
(a) phytoplankton
(b) zooplankton
(c) benthos
(d) fishes.
Solution:
(b) zooplankton

Question 4.
Secondary producers are
(a) herbivores
(b) producers
(c) carnivores
(d) none of these
Solution:
(a) herbivores

Question 5.
What is the percentage of photosynthetically active radiation (PAR), in the incident solar radiation.
(a) 100%
(b) 50%
(c) 1 – 5%
(d) 2 – 10%
Solution:
(b) 50%

Question 6.
Distinguish between
(a) Grazing food chain and detritus food chain
(b) Upright and inverted pyramid
(c) Litter and detritus
(d) Production and decomposition
(e) Food chain and food web
(f) Primary and secondary productivity
Solution:
(a) Differences between grazing food chain and detritus food chain are as follows

(b) Differences between upright and inverted pyramids are as follows :

(c) Differences between litter and detritus are as follows :

(d) Differences between production and decomposition are as follows :

(e) Differences between food chain and food web are as follows:

(f) Differences between primary productivity and secondary productivity are as follows :

Question 7.
Describe the components of an ecosystem.
Solution:
Ecosystem: The system resulting from the interaction between organisms and their environment is called an ecosystem.
(a) Producers: Organisms, which can synthesize their own food are included under producers, e.g., Volvox, Pandorina, Oedogonium, Saggitaria, Utricularia, Azolla, Trapa, Lemna, Typha, Nymphaea etc. form the producer class of the pond ecosystem.

(b) Consumers:

• Primary consumer: Animals, which feed on producers are included in this category e.g., Daphnia, Cyclops, Paramoecium, Amoeba, and small fishes.
• Secondary consumers: Primary consumers also serve as food for water snakes, a few tortoises, few types of fish, etc. hence, these are carnivores.
• Tertiary consumers: Secondary consumers also serve as food for aquatic birds like kingfishers, cranes, big fish and these together form a top-class carnivorous group and called tertiary consumers.

(c) Decomposers: All producers and consumers die and accumulate on the floor of the pond. Even the waste material and feces of these animals get accumulated on the floor of the pond. Similarly, the floor of the pond is also occupied by decomposers, which include bacteria and fungi. These decomposers decompose complex organic compounds of then- bodies into simpler forms which are finally mixed with the soil of the floor of ponds. These are again absorbed by the roots of producer plants and thus matter is recycled.

Question 8.
Define ecological pyramids and describe with examples, pyramids of number and biomass.
Solution:
An ecological pyramid is a graphic representation of an ecological parameter, as a number of individuals present in various trophic levels of a food chain with producers forming the base and top carnivores the tip. Ecological pyramids were developed by Charles Elton (1927) and are, therefore, also called Eltonian pyramids.

There are three types of ecological pyramids, namely,

• Pyramid of numbers
• Pyramid of biomass
• Pyramid of energy

Pyramid of numbers: It is a graphic representation of the number of individuals per unit area of various trophic levels stepwise with producers at the base and top carnivores at the tip. In a grassland, the producers, which are mainly grasses, are always maximum in number. This number then shows a decrease towards the apex, as the primary consumers (herbivores) like rabbits, mice, etc. are lesser in number than the grasses; the secondary consumers, snakes, and lizards are lesser in number than the rabbits and mice. Finally, the top (tertiary) consumers hawks or other birds, are the least in number. Thus, the pyramid becomes upright.

Pyramid of biomass: The amount of living organic matter (fresh and dry weight) is called biomass. Here, different trophic level of the ecosystem are arranged according to the biomass of the organisms. In grassland and forest, there is generally a gradual decrease in biomass of organisms at successive levels from the producers to the top carnivores. Thus these pyramids are upright. But in pond ecosystem, it is inverted because the biomass gradually increases from the producers to carnivores.

Question 9.
What is primary productivity? Give a brief description of factors that affect primary productivity.
Solution:
The rate of biomass production is called productivity.
It is expressed in terms of g^-2yr^-1  or(Kcal-m^-2) yr^-1 to compare the productivity of ecosystems.
It can be divided into Gross Primary Productivity (GPP) and Net Primary Productivity (NFP).

Gross Primary Productivity of an ecosystem is the rate of production of organic matter during photosynthesis. A considerable amount of GPP is utilized by plants in respiration.

Gross primary productivity minus respiration losses (R), is the Net Primary Productivity (NPP). GPP – R=NPP.
Primary productivity depends on:

• The plant species inhabiting a particular area.
• The environmental factors.
• Availability of nutrients.
• Photosynthetic capacity of plants.

Question 10.
Define decomposition and describe the processes and products of decomposition.
Solution:
Decomposition is the breakdown of dead or wastes organic matter by micro-organisms. Decomposition is both physical and chemical in nature. Processes involved in decomposition are – fragmentation, catabolism & leaching.

• Fragmentation – The process primarily due to the action of detritus feeding invertebrate (detritivores) causes it to break into smaller particles. The detritus gets pulverized when passing through the digestive tracts of animals. Due to fragmentation, the surface area of detritus particles is greatly increased.
• Catabolism – Enzyme degradation of detritus into simpler organic substances by bacteria and fungi.
• Leaching – The process by which nutrients, chemicals, or contaminants are dissolved & carried away by water, or are moved into a lower layer of soil.

Various inorganic and organic substances are obtained by decomposition. Inorganic substances are obtained in the process of mineralization while organic substances are obtained in humification. A dark coloured amorphous substance called humus is formed by decomposition. Humus is highly resistant to microbial action & undergoes extremely slow decomposition. It serves as a reservoir of nutrients.

Question 11.
Give an account of energy flow in an ecosystem.
Solution:
Ecosystems require a constant input of energy as every component of an ecosystem is regularly dissipating energy.

Two laws of thermodynamics govern this flow of energy. According to the first law of thermodynamics, energy can be transferred as well as transformed but is neither created nor destroyed. According to the second law of thermodynamics, every activity involving energy transformation is accompanied by the dissipation of energy. Except for deep hydrothermal ecosystems, the source of energy in all ecosystems is solar energy. 50% of the solar energy incident over the earth is present in PAR (photosynthetically active radiation).

Energy flow in an ecosystem is always unidirectional or one way, i.e., solar radiation → producers → herbivores → carnivores. It cannot pass in the reverse direction. There is a decrease in the content and flow of energy with the rise in trophic level. Only 10% of energy is transferred from one trophic level to the next.
Producer biomass (1000 K cal) → Herbivore biomass (100 K cal) → Carnivore I biomass (10 Kcal) Carnivore II biomass (1 Kcal)

Question 12.
Write important features of a sedimentary cycle in an ecosystem
Solution:
Sedimentary Biogeochemical cycle:- It is the circulation of a biogeochemical between the biotic and abiotic compound of an ecosystem is a nongaseous being lithosphere or sediments of the earth. Sedimentary cycles occur in the case of phosphorus, calcium, magnesium, zinc, copper, etc.

Question 13.
Outline salient features of carbon cycling in an ecosystem.
Solution:
Carbon constitutes 49 percent of the dry weight of organisms and is next only to water. 71 percent of carbon is found dissolved in oceans. This ocean reservoir regulates the amount of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere. Fossil fuels also represent a reservoir of carbon. Carbon cycling occurs through the atmosphere, ocean, and living and dead organisms. 4 x 10¹³ kg of carbon is fixed in the biosphere through photosynthesis annually.

A considerable amount of carbon returns to the atmosphere as Co₂ through respiratory activities of the producers and consumers. Decomposers also contribute substantially to the CO₂ pool by their processing of waste materials and dead organic matter of land or oceans. Some amount of fixed carbon is lost to sediments and removed from circulation. Burning of wood, forest fire and combustion of organic matter, fossil fuels, volcanic activity are additional sources for releasing Co₂ into the atmosphere.

Human activities have significantly influenced the carbon cycle. Rapid deforestation and the massive burning of fossil fuels for energy and transport have significantly increased the rate of release of carbon dioxide into the atmosphere.

We hope the NCERT Solutions for Class 12 Biology Chapter 14 Ecosystem helps you. If you have any query regarding NCERT Solutions for Class 12 Biology Chapter 14 Ecosystem, drop a comment below and we will get back to you at the earliest.

Here we are providing NCERT Solutions for Class 12 English Flamingo Poem 2 An Elementary School Classroom in a Slum. Students can get Class 12 English An Elementary School Classroom in a Slum NCERT Solutions, Questions and Answers designed by subject expert teachers.

An Elementary School Classroom in a Slum NCERT Solutions for Class 12 English Flamingo Poem 2

An Elementary School Classroom in a Slum NCERT Text Book Questions and Answers

An Elementary School Classroom in a Slum Think it out 

Question 1.
Tick the item which best answers the following:

(a)“The tall girl with her head weighed down ” means The girl
(i) is ill and exhausted
(ii) has her head bent with shame
(iii) has untidy hair
Answer:
(i) is ill and exhausted

(b) “The paper-seeming boy, with rat’s eyes “ means The boy is
(i) sly and secretive
(ii) thin, hungry, and weak
(iii) unpleasant looking
Answer:
(ii) thin, hungry, and weak

(c) “The stunted, unlucky heir of twisted bones ” means The boy
(i) has an inherited disability
(ii) was short and bony
Answer:
(i) has an inherited disability

(d) “His eyes live in a dream, of squirrel’s game, in tree room, Other than this ” means The boy is
(i) full of hope about the future
(ii) mentally ill
(iii) distracted from the lesson
Answer:
(ii) mentally ill

(e) The children’s faces are compared to “rootless weeds ”
This means they
(i) are insecure
(ii) are ill-fed
(iii) are wasters
Answer:
(ii) are ill-fed

Question 2.
What do you think is the colour of “sour cream”? Why do you think the poet has used this expression to describe the classroom walls?
Answer:
The colour of “sour cream” is off-white or yellowish. The poet has used this expression to describe the classroom walls in order to underline the prevalent neglect. The dull colour and the suggested bitterness, echo the situation of the children.

Question 3.
The walls of the classroom are decorated with the pictures of Shakespeare, “buildings with domes”, “world maps”, and “beautiful valleys”. How do these contrast with the world of these children?
Answer:
The poet saw the lives of slum children as far removed from that which is represented in schoolbooks, maps, photographs of alpine valleys, pictures of buildings with domes and the bust of Shakespeare. The glories of the world filled the textbooks and their classroom walls but failed to liberate these children from the reality of their impoverished existence in the cramped waste of modem industrial towns. The pictures serve as a stark contrast to the lived reality of the children.

Question 4.
What does the poet want for the children of the slums? How can their lives be made to change?
Answer:
Stephen Spender, in this poem, questions the value of education in a slum. He appealed to the governors, teachers, inspectors and visitors to rescue the poor and oppressed from the “tomb” of class discrimination. The poet appeals to them to work towards the social and economic development of these children.

An Elementary School Classroom in a Slum Extra Questions and Answers

An Elementary School Classroom in a Slum Short Answer Questions

Question 1.
Describe the three deprived children as described by Spender in the poem.
Answer:
Among the three deprived children described by Spender in the poem, the first is the tall girl with a “weighed-down head” signifying that she was mentally and physically exhausted. The second is the “paper- seeming boy” with frightened eyes. He was malnourished with twisted bones. The third is an unnoticed “sweet and young” boy whose eyes “live in a dream”.

Question 2.
Mention the characteristics of the slum children.
Answer:
The slum children are described as drained of energy; pale and thin. They are undernourished and unkempt like the “rootless weeds”. They are exhausted—mentally, physically and emotionally.

Question 3.
The first three stanzas spell a scene of dejection and despair. Justify.
Answer:
In the first stanza, the poet spells a scene of dejection and despair by using words such as the “rootless”,“stunted”, “twisted”, “gnarled”, “dim” and “diseased”. The poet speaks of the children’s faces as “rootless weeds”—unwanted, ugly and parasitic. They were unkempt and exhausted, sickly lean and like rodents. They had inherited their diseased bones from their parents. Their pitiable plight is reflected by equally dim and pathetic classrooms. They were doomed to be the “slag heap” of society like useless and unwanted “rubbish”.This antithetical imagery lends a contrast between the slum children and the subjects of their learning.

Question 4.
Contrast the imagery of the slum with donations on the wall.
Answer:
The slum is described as dark and dim where the children live on slag heap. They have a foggy future. The course of life for them is a narrow street with a lead sky that encloses on them. This is in contrast to the donations on the wall. Shakespeare’s head symbolizes an enlightened mind and the cloudless bright skies and the Tyrolese valley are contrasted with the foggy environment of the slum. The donations talk both of beauty and progress, while the slum is regressive.

Question 5.
What do “sour cream walls” symbolize?
Answer:
The “sour cream walls” symbolize the unkempt walls where the paint is yellowing and has lost lustre. Metaphorically, it reflects the despondent look of the students as well as the bitter life of the slum children.

Question 6.
Who can change the lives of the slum children and how?
Answer:
An enlightened person like a governor, inspector, or visitor can transform the lives of the slum children. These educated minds can liberate the imprisoned minds of the children. The poet then visualizes liberated children running on the “gold sands” and delving into the books. Their mind will be empowered and enlightened like the sun.

Question 7.
Discuss the use of metaphors in the poem.
Answer:
The poem uses a lot of comparisons or metaphors. The “gusty waves” symbolize the energy that ought to be found in children. The image of the fog is an implied comparison with the bleak future of children; for this purpose the poet uses the words “painted with a fog” and closed down with a “lead sky”. The children live “from fog to endless night” and for them “time and space are foggy slum”. The exposure to education and liberation of the mind is compared to being shown “green fields” and allowed to run “azure on gold sands”.
Being empowered and enlightened is being like the sun.

Question 8.
The poem dwells on squalor but ends on an optimistic note. Discuss.
Answer:
The poem dwells on squalor but ends on an optimistic note. The imprisoned minds and lives will be released from their bondage when “governor, inspector, visitor” come to their rescue. They will be free from the “tomb” of class prejudice and are visualized as liberated children running on the “gold sands”, exploring the realms of knowledge. They will also be liberated from the shackles of poverty.

An Elementary School Classroom in a Slum Value Based Question

Question 1.
The poem exposes the widespread neglect of children of all nationalities, races, and ethnicities. The poet pleads for equal opportunity for education thereby appealing to the people to be more sensitive to their needs. Justify.
Answer:
The poet pleads for social justice so as to provide equal opportunity for education to children of all social strata. He pities the miserable plight of the classroom in the slum that offers little hope for change or progress for its students. The poem provides a clear, dreary depiction of the students in the classroom. The poverty and social injustice imposed upon the children causes them to be “weighed-down,” “paper-seeming,” diseased and “twisted.” Through the poignant imagery, the poet expresses his outrage at the insensitive attitude of the rich and the privileged, towards the unfortunate children of the slum school.

The poem also highlights the importance of education and how it should touch the lives of the downtrodden society. Empowered by education, these children, according to the poet, can achieve a mental prowess that will free them from futures “painted with a fog”. He views education as a means of bringing about social . change and uprooting poverty. He wishes for the divide between the rich and the poor to disappear so that no childhood is lost in the gloomy darkness of the ignorance in the slums.

Give examples from the poem of the following poetic devices.

Antithesis
Contrast between the “rootless”, “stunted”, “twisted”, “gnarled”, “dim” and “diseased” lives of the slum children with that represented in schoolbooks, maps, photographs of alpine valleys, or a bust of Shakespeare.

Repetition
(a) “Far far from rivers, capes, and stars of words.”
(b) “Break O break open ‘till they break the town.”

Simile
(a) “.. .children’s faces/Like rootless weeds”
(b) “With mended glass, like bottle bits on stones.”

Metaphor
(a) “The paper-seeming boy, with rat’s eyes.”
(b) “these windows, not this world, are world,”
(c) “future painted with fog”
(d) “A narrow street sealed in with a lead sky,”
(e) “From fog to endless night”

Irony
“Surely, Shakespeare is wicked, and the map a bad example”

NCERT Solutions for Class 12 Physics Chapter 7 Alternating Current

NCERT Solutions for Class 12 Physics Chapter 7 Alternating Current are part of NCERT Solutions for Class 12 Physics. Here we have given. NCERT Solutions for Class 12 Physics Chapter 7 Alternating Current

Question 1.
A 100 Ω resistor is connected to a 220 V, 50 Hz ac supply.
(a) What is the rms value of current in the circuit?
(b) What is the net power consumed over a full cycle?
Answer:

Question 2.
(a) The peak voltage of an a.c. supply is 300 V. What is the rms voltage?
(b) The rms value of current in an ac circuit is 10 A. What is the peak current?
Answer:

Question 3.
A 44 mH inductor is connected to 220 V, 50 Hz ac supply. Determine the rms value of the current in the circuit.
Answer:
Here, reactance X_L = 2 Πv L = 2Π X 50 x 44 x 10^-3


Question 4.
A 60 μF capacitor is connected to a 110 V, 60 Hz ac supply. Determine the RMS value of the current in the circuit.
Answer:

Question 5.
In Exercise 7.3 and 7.4, what is the net power absorbed by each circuit over a complete cycle? Explain your answer.
Answer:
In the case of an ideal inductor or capacitor, there is no power loss.

Question 6.
Obtain the resonant frequency ω_r of a series LCR circuit with L =2.0 H, C = 32 μF and R = 10 Ω. What is the Q-value of this circuit?
Answer:

Question 7.
A charged 30 μF capacitor is connected to a 27 mil inductor. What is the angular frequency of free oscillations of the circuit ?
Answer:

Question 8.
Suppose the initial charge on the capacitor in Exercise 7.7 is 6 mC. What is the total energy stored in the circuit initially? What is the total energy at later time?
Answer:


At a later time, energy is shared between capacitor and inductor, However, the total energy remains the same, provided there is no loss of energy.

Question 9.
A series LCR circuit with R = 20 Ω, L = 1.5 H and C = 35 μF is connected to a variable-frequency 200 V ac supply. When the frequency of the supply equals the natural frequency of the circuit, what is the average power transferred to the circuit in one complete cycle?
Answer:
At natural frequency

Question 10.
A radio can tune over the frequency range of a portion of the MW broadcast band : (800 kHz to 1200 kHz). If its LC circuit has an effective inductance of 200 pH, what must be the range of its variable capacitor?
[Hint. For tuning, the natural frequency i.e., the frequency of free oscillations for the LC circuit should be equal to the frequency of the radio wave.]
Answer:

Thus, the range of the variable capacitor must be 88 pF to 198 pF.

Question 11.
Figure shows a series LCR circuit connected to a variable frequency 230 V source. L = 5.0 H, C = 80 μF, R = 40 Cl.

(a) Determine the source frequency which drives the circuit in resonance.
(b) Obtain the impedance of the circuit and the amplitude of current at the resonating frequency.
(c) Determine the rms potential drops across the three elements of the circuit. Show that the potential drop across the LC combination is zero at the resonating frequency. (C.B.S.E. 1994, 1998, 2006)
Answer:
(a) Resonant angular frequency,

Question 12.
An LC circuit contains a 20 mH inductor and a 50 μF capacitor with an initial charge of 10 mC. The resistance of the circuit is negligible. Let the instant the circuit is closed be t = 0.
(a) What is the total energy stored initially? Is it conserved during LC oscillations?
(b) What is the natural frequency of the circuit?
(c) At what time is the energy stored:
(i) completely electrical (i.e., stored in the capacitor)?
(ii) completely magnetic (i.e., stored in the inductor)?
(d) At what times is the total energy shared equally between the inductor and the capacitor?
(e) If a resistor is inserted in the circuit, how much energy is eventually dissipated as heat? (C.B.S.E. Sample Paper 1998)
Answer:
(a) Total initial energy



(e) Total initial energy of 1 J will be lost as heat due to Joule’s heating effect in the resistor.

Question 13.
A coil of inductance 0.50 H and resistance 100 Ω is connected to a 240 V, 50 Hz ac supply.
(a) What is the maximum current in the coil?
(b) What is the time lag between the voltage maximum and the current maximum?
Answer:



Question 14.
Obtain the answers (a) to (b) in Exercise 7.13 if the circuit is connected to a high-frequency supply (240 V, 10 kHz). Hence, explain the statement that at very high frequency, an inductor in a circuit nearly amounts to an open circuit. How does an inductor behave in a dc circuit after the steady-state?
Answer:
For the given high frequency, ω = 2 Π v = 2 Π x 10⁴ rad s^-1
I_{0, in this case,} is too small, so it can be concluded that at high frequencies an inductor behaves as on an open circuit.
In a steady d.c. circuit v = 0, so the inductor acts as a simple conductor.

Question 15.
A 100 μF capacitor in series with a 40 Ω resistance is connected to a 110 V, 60 Hz supply.
(а)    What is the maximum current in the circuit?
(b)  What is the time lag between the current maximum and the voltage maximum?
Answer:


Question 16.
Obtain the answers to (a) and (b) in Exercise 7.15 if the circuit is connected to a 110 V, 12 kHz supply. Hence, explain the statement that a capacitor is a conductor at very high frequencies. Compare this behavior with that of a capacitor in a dc circuit after the steady-state.
Answer

embed=”true”>or n is nearly zero at high frequency. In part (a) C term is negligible at a high frequency so it acts like a resistor. For a steady d. c. we have v like

Question 17.
Keeping the source frequency equal to the resonating frequency of the series LCR circuit, if the three elements. L, C, and R are arranged in parallel, show that the total current in the parallel LCR circuit is minimum at this frequency. Obtain the current rms value in each branch of the circuit for the elements and source specified in Exercise 7.11 for this frequency.
Answer:
In the case of parallel LCR circuit, impedance is given by,

Question 18.
A circuit containing an 80 mF inductor and a 60 μF capacitor in series is connected to a 230 V, 50 Hz supply. The resistance of the circuit is negligible.
(a) Obtain the current amplitude and rms values.
(b) Obtain the rms values of potential drops across each element.
(c) What is the average power transferred to the inductor?
(d) What is the average power transferred to the capacitor?
(e) What is the total average power absorbed by the circuit?
[‘Average’ implies ‘averaged over one cycle’.]
Answer:

Question 19.
Suppose the circuit in Exercise 7.18 has a resistance of 15 Ω. Obtain the average power transferred to each element of the circuit, and the total power absorbed.
Answer:

Question 20.
A series LCR circuit with L = 0.12 H, C = 480 nF, R = 23 Ω is connected to a 230 V variable frequency supply.
(a) What is the source frequency for which current amplitude is maximum. Obtain this maximum value.
(b) What is the source frequency for which the average power absorbed by the circuit is maximum. Obtain the value of this maximum power.
(c) For which frequencies of the source are the power transferred to the circuit half the power at resonant frequency? What is the current amplitude at these frequencies?
(d) What is the Q-factor of the given circuit? (C.B.S.E. 1992 )
Answer:


Question 21.
Obtain the resonant frequency and Q-factor of a series LCR circuit with L = 3.0 H, C = 27 μF, and R = 7.4 Ω. It is desired to improve the sharpness of the resonance of the circuit by reducing its ‘full width at half maximum’ by a factor of 2. Suggest a suitable way.
Answer:

Question 22.
Answer the following questions :
(a) In any ac circuit, is then applied instantaneous voltage equal to the algebraic sum of the instantaneous voltages across the series elements of the circuit? Is the same true for rms voltage?
(b) A capacitor is used in the primary circuit of an induction coil.
(c) An applied voltage signal consists of a superposition of a dc voltage and an ac voltage of high frequency. The circuit consists of an inductor and a capacitor in series. Show that the dc signal will appear across C and the ac signal across L.
(d) A choke coil in series with a lamp is connected to a dc line. The lamp is seen to shine brightly. Insertion of an iron core in the choke causes no change in the lamp’s brightness. Predict the corresponding observations if the connection is to an ac line.
(e) Why is choke coil needed in the use of fluorescent tubes with ac mains? Why can we not use an ordinary resistor instead of the choke coil?
Answer:
(a) Yes, the applied instantaneous voltage is equal to the algebraic sum of the instantaneous voltages across the series elements of the circuit. It is because voltages across different elements are not in phase.
It is not true for rms voltages. It is because rms voltages across different elements are not in phase with each other.

(b) At the break, a large induced emf is produced. In case the capacitor is not connected, sparking will take place. But when the capacitor is used, the large induced emf produced at break is used up in charging the capacitor and no sparking takes place.

(c)

For d.c., X_L = 0, therefore, X_L = 0 and X_c = oo. Hence, d.c. signal appears across capacitor.For high frequency a.c., X_L → High and X_c → 0. Hence, a.c. signal appears across inductor.

(d) When a choke coil in series with a lamp is connected to a d.c. line, L has no effect on the steady value of the current. Therefore, the brightness of the lamp is not affected by the insertion of the iron core in the choke. On a.c. line, the lamp will shine dimly due to the impedance of the choke coil. The brightness of the lamp will further go dim on the insertion of an iron core, which increases the impedance of the choke coil.

(e) The choke coil is used to reduce the current. As its power factor is zero, it reduces the current without wasting the power. If an ordinary resistor is used instead of a choke coil, ft will waste power in the form of heat.

Question 23.
A power transmission line feeds input power at 2300 V to a step-down transformer with its primary windings having 4000 turns. What should be the number of turns in the secondary in order to get output power at 230 V? (C.B.S.E. 1997)
Answer:

Question 24.
At a hydroelectric power plant, the water pressure head is at a height of 300 m and the water flow available is 100 m³s^-1. If the turbine generator efficiency is 60%, estimate the electric power available from the plant (g = 9.8 ms^-2).
Answer:

Question 25.
A small town with a demand of 800 kW of electric power at 220 V is situated 15 km away from an electric plant generating power at 440 V. The resistance of the two wirelines carrying power is 0.5 Q per km. The town gets power from the line through a 4000-220 V step-down transformer at a sub-station in the town.
(a) Estimate the line power loss in the form of heat.
(b) How much power must the plant supply, assuming there is negligible power loss due to leakage?
(c) Characterise the step-up transformer at the plant.(C.B.S.E. Sample Paper 2003)
Answer:

Question 26.
Do the same exercise as above with the replacement of the earlier transformer by a 40,000 – 220 V step-down transformer (Neglect, as before, leakage losses though this may not be a good assumption any longer because of the very high voltage transmission involved). Hence, explain why high voltage transmission is preferred.
Answer:

We hope the NCERT Solutions for Class 12 Physics Chapter 7 Alternating Current, help you. If you have any query regarding NCERT Solutions for Class 12 Physics Chapter 7 Alternating Current, drop a comment below and we will get back to you at the earliest.

NCERT Solutions for Class 12 History Chapter 3 Kinship, Caste and Class Early Societies are part of NCERT Solutions for Class 12 History. Here we have given NCERT Solutions for Class 12 History Chapter 3 Kinship, Caste and Class Early Societies.

NCERT Solutions for Class 12 History Chapter 3 Kinship, Caste and Class Early Societies

Question 1
Explain why patriliny may have been particularly important among elite families.
Solution :
Patriliny means tracing descent from father to son, grandson and so on. While ; patriliny had existed prior to the composition of the Mahabharata, its central story reinforced the idea that it was valuable. It was important among elite and ruling families to avoid conflicts over land, power and resources including the throne in the case of kings of their fathers when the latter died as had happened between the Kauravas and the Pandavas, who belonged to a single ruling family.

There were, however, variations in practice. Sometimes if there were no sons, brothers succeeded one another. Sometimes other kinsmen claimed the throne, and in very exceptional ; circumstances, women such as Prabhavati Gupta exercised power.

Question 2.
Discuss whether kings in early states invariably were Kshatriyas.
Solution :
As per the Dharmashastra, only Kshatriyas were supposed to be the kings. But it was also to be noted that many important ruling lineages perhaps had different origins. Mauryas were considered Kshatriyas by many people. Some Brahmanical texts described Mauryas as of low origin. The Shungas and Kanvas who were immediate successors of the Mauryas were Brahmanas. In fact those sections of the society controlled the political power which enjoyed support and resources. It did not depend on the question of being bom as Kshatriya.

There were other rulers like Shakas who came from Central Asia. But the Brahmanas considered them as mlechchhas, barbarians and outsiders. Similarly, Gotami-putra Satkami, the best known ruler of the Satavahana dynasty, became a destroyer of the pride of kshatriyas. This we see that the Satavahanas claimed to be Brahmanas whereas the Brahmanas were of the opinion that the king should be Kshatriyas.

Question 3.
Compare and contrast the dharma or norms mentioned in the stories of Drona, Hidimba and Matanga.
Solution :
(a) The following principles of dharma or norms have been mentioned in the stories of Drona, Hidimba and Matanga:

• Story of Drona : To teach Kshatriyas only, to take fee or guru dakshina from the pupils, and to keep his words.
• Story of Hidimba : Marriage of Bhima with Hidimba against the principles of marriage.
• Story of Matanga : To treat chandalas at the very bottom of the hierarchy of vamas due to handling of corpses and dead animals and treating them as “polluting” by those who claimed to be at the top of the social order.

(b) In all the three stories the dharma or norms as mentioned in the Dharmasutras and Dharmashastras have been violated in one way or the other. In case of Drona, he refused to have Ekalavya as his pupil because he was a forest dwelling nishada who did not fit into the fourfold varna system. It was considered a jati. Ekalavya acquired great skill in archery that was perhaps better than Arjuna before the image of Drona. He acknowledged Drona as his teacher. So, when Drona approached him and asked for his right thumb as his fee, he did not hesitate and offered it to his teacher. This shows that Drona followed a double standard towards Ekalavya. He refused to treat him as his pupil but in order to keep his words that no one would be better than Aijuna, he demanded the right thumb from Ekalavya as his fee. It was against the principles of morality.

In case of Hidimba, Yudhisthira agreed to the marriage conditionally. After giving birth to a rakshasa son, the mother and son left the Pandavas. This was in violation of the norms for marriages because rakshasa were the people whose practices differed from those laid down in Brahmanical texts.

In case of Matanga, on his first encounter with Dittha Mangalika, he was beaten as she had seen something inauspicious. Later on Matanga attained spiritual powers and married her. They had a son named Mandavya Kumara who treated Matanga unworthy of alms and treated him badly. When Mangalika learnt about the incident, she sought his forgiveness. This story shows that chandalas were regarded as “polluting”. At the same time this proves that they did not accept the life of degradation prescribed in the Shastra. Matanga attained spiritual powers. He gave a bit of the leftover from his bowl to Dittha Mangalika and asked her to give it to Mandavya and Brahmans which hint that occasionally the social realities were different from the Brahmanical texts. The above stories reflect the realities of social condition of that period.

Question 4.
In what ways was the Buddhist theory of a social contract different from the Brahmanical view of a society derived from the Purusha Sukta?(VBQ)
Solution :
The Purusha Sukta of the Rig Veda says that the four Vamas emerged because of the sacrifice of Purusha, the primeval man. The four vamas were Brahmanas, Kshatriyas, Vaishyas and Shudras. These Vamas had different jobs. The Brahmanas had supreme position in the society. They were also considered as teachers. Kshatriyas were considered warriors. They also ran the administration. The Vaishyas were the masters of trade. The Shudras were at the lowest strata. Their duty was to serve the above three vamas. Under this Brahmanical system, birth was the only criteria to judge the status and prestige in the society.

But the Buddhisftheory of a social contract was different. As per the Buddhist concept, there was inequality in society. But they also opined that this inequality was neither natural nor permanent. They did not favour the idea of birth being the criteria of social status.

Question 5.
The following is an excerpt from the Mahabharata, in which Yudhisthira, the eldest Pandava, speaks to Sanjaya, a messenger :
Sanjaya, convey my respectful greetings to all the Brahmanas and the chief priest of the house of Dhritarashtra. I bow respectfully to teacher Drona… I hold the feet of our preceptor Kripa … (and) the chief of the Kurus, the great Bhishma. I bow respectfully to the old king (Dhritarashtra). I greet and ask after the health of his son Duryodhana and his younger brother .. Also greet all the young Kuru warriors who are our brothers, sons and grandsons … Greet above all him, who is to us like father and mother, the wise Vidura (bom of a slave woman)… bow to the elderly ladies who are known as our mothers. To those who are our wives you say this, “I hope they are well-protected” … Our daughters-in-law bom of good families and mothers of children greet on my behalf. Embrace for me those who are our daughters … The beautiful, fragrant, well-dressed courtesans of ours you should also greet. Greet the slave women and their children, greet the aged, the maimed (and) the helpless …

Try and identify the criteria used to make this list – in terms of age, gender, kinship ties. Are there any other criteria ? For each category, explain why they are placed in a particular position in the list.
Solution :
(a) The list has been prepared on the following basis and order. The criteria used for each category has been mentioned against them :
(b) From the above list it is clear that each category has been placed keeping in view the age, gender and kinship ties as well as their varnas. Slave women and aged, the maimed and the helpless have been placed in the last two categories.

Question 6.
This is what a famous historian of Indian literature, Maurice Wintemitz, wrote about the Mahabharata : “just because the Mahabharata represents more of an entire literature … and contains so much and so many kinds of things. … (it) gives(s) us an insight into the most profound depths of the soul of the Indian folk.” Discuss.
Solution :
The above statement of Maurice Wintemitz about the Mahabharata seems to be correct because it is one of the richest texts of the subcontinent. It is a colossal epic running in

its present form into over 100,000 verses with depictions of a wide range of social categories and situations. It was composed over a period of about 1000 years and some of the stories it contains may have been in circulation even earlier. The text also contains sections laying down norms of behaviour for various social groups. Occasionally, the principal characters seem to follow these norms. Over the centuries, versions of the epic were written in a variety of languages. Several stories that originated in specific regions or circulated among certain people found their way into the epic. The central story of the epic was often retold in different ways. Its episodes have been depicted in sculpture and painting. They also provided themes for a wide range of performing arts – plays, dance, and other kinds of narrations. Its central story describes a feud over land and power between two groups of cousins. It reinforces the principle of patriliny. It mentions rules of marriage too. Thus, it is correct that it contains so many things and gives us an insight into the most profound depths of the soul of the Indian folk.

Question 7.
Discuss whether the Mahabharata could have been the work of a single author.
Solution :

1. The Mahabharata could not have been the work of a single author because a text which initially perhaps had less than 10,000 verses grew to comprise about 100,000 verses. This enormous composition is traditionally attributed to a sage named Vyasa. There is also a tradition that Vyasa dictated the text to the deity Ganesha.
2. The original story was probably composed by charioteer-bards known as sutas who generally accompanied Kshatriya warriors to the battlefields. They used to compose poems celebrating their victories and other achievements. These compositions circulated orally.
3. Then from the fifth century BCE, Brahmanas began to commit it to writing.
4. This was the time when the Kurus and Panchalas became kingdoms and perhaps the new kings wanted their itihas to be recorded and preserved systematically. Social values were often replaced by new norms and these have been mentioned in the Mahabharata.
5. The next stage was between 200 BCE and 200 CE when worship of Vishnu grew in importance and Krishna was identified with Vishnu.
6. Between 200 and 400 CE, large didactic sections resembling Manusmriti were added. Thus, the epic was neither written by one author nor was it written during one period.

Question 8.
How important were gender differences in early societies? Give reasons for your answer.
Solution :
It is seen that in early societies families were generally patriliny. Patriliny means tracing descent from father to son and to grandson and so on. Matriliny family was k generally not in use. But exception was also available. As exception, Satavahanas of Andhra can be mentioned. Historical sources mention the name of some rulers from inscriptions associated with the names of the mothers of the king. As Gotami-putra means’ son of Gotami’. Gotami and Vasistha are the feminines of Gotama and Vasistha. Sons were considered important for the continuity of the family. Attitudes towards daughter were different. They had no claims towards the resources of the household. But marrying them into the families outside the kin was considered desirable. This system of marriage was called exogamy. According to this system, the lives of the young ‘girls and women belonged to those families which claimed that high status were often carefully regulated to ensure that they were married at the right time and to the right person. This gave rise to the tradition that in marriage Kanyadana was an important religious duty of the father.

After marriage women were supposed to give up their father’s gotra and adopt their husband’s.As per Manusmriti, the paternal state was to be divided equally amongst sons after the death of parents, with a special share for the eldest. Women were not given any share
in this state.

But women were allowed to keep the gifts with themselves which they received at the [ time of their marriage. This was called stridhana. This could be inherited by. their children and the husband had no claim over it. But at the same time Manusmriti also told women not to hoard family property or even their own valuables without the permission of their husband.
In fact, social differences were sharpened because ofthe differences in access of resources.Many texts suggest that while upper class women may have access to resources but l and, cattle, money were generally controlled by the men. Vakataka queen Prabhavati Gupta was a rich woman.

Question 9.
Discuss the evidence that suggests that Brahmanical prescriptions about kinship and marriage were not universally followed.
Solution :
The following evidence suggests that Brahmanical prescriptions about kinship and marriage were not universally followed :

1. Change in kinship relations : There was change in kinship relations. For example, the Mahabharata is a story of a feud over land and power between two groups of cousins, the Kauravas and the Pandavas. Ultimately, the conflict ended in a battle, in which the Pandavas emerged victorious.
2. Patriliny : Patriliny means tracing descent from father to son, grandson and so on. But there were variations in practice. Sometimes, if there were no sons, brothers succeeded one another. Sometimes other kinsmen claimed the throne. In very exceptional circumstances, women such as Prabhavati Gupta exercised power.
3. Marriages : The Dharmasutras and Dharmashastras recognised as many as eight forms of marriage. Of these, the first four were considered as “good” while the remaining were condemned. These were perhaps practised by those who did not accept Brahmanical norms.
4. Gotra of women : According to Brahmanical practice, women were expected to give up their father’s gotra and adopt that of their husband on marriage and members of the same gotra could not marry. This was not followed universally. For example, names of many women who married Satavahana rulers had been derived from gotras such as Gotama and Vasistha, their father’s gotras. They did not adopt their husband’s gotra. Not only this, some of them belonged to the same gotra that was against exogamy. The system of endogamy or marriage within the kin group was too prevalent among several communities in south India.

We hope the NCERT Solutions for Class 12 History Chapter 3 Kinship, Caste and Class Early Societies help you. If you have any query regarding NCERT Solutions for Class 12 History Chapter 3 Kinship, Caste and Class Early Societi