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Here we are providing Class 12 Sociology Important Extra Questions and Answers Chapter 4 The Market as a Social Institution. Sociology Class 12 Important Questions are the best resource for students which helps in class 12 board exams.

Class 12 Sociology Chapter 4 Important Extra Questions The Market as a Social Institution

The Market as a Social Institution Important Extra Questions Very Short Answer Type

Question 1.
What is meant by the Market?
Answer:
In economics, a place where the exchange of things takes place or where things are bought or sold is called a market. But in sociology, markets are social institutions that are constructed in culturally specific ways.

Question 2.
What is meant by Market Economy according to Adam Smith?
Answer:
According to Adam Smith, the market economy is made up of a series of individual exchanges or transactions, which automatically create a functioning and ordered system. This happens even though none of the individuals involved in the millions of transactions had intended to create a system.

Question 3.
Give the meaning of free market.
Answer:
Adam Smith supported the idea of the free market. It is a market that is free from all kinds of regulation whether by the state or otherwise. If any regulation would be there then it would have a negligible impact on trade.

Question 4.
What is meant by the policy of Laissez-Fairer?
Answer:
The meaning of the French word ‘Laissez-Fairer’ is to leave alone or let the market be it means that the market should be free from the State’s control and no interference of government would be there in it.

Question 5.
What is meant by Weekly Markets?
Answer:
Weekly markets are held in tribal areas which bring together people from surrounding villages, who come to sell their agricultural or other products and to buy manufactured goods and other goods and other items that are not available in their villages.

Question 6.
What is meant by the Short-term Market?
Answer:
Short-term Market is that state of the market in which if the demand of any commodity increases then the produce of that thing gets time to increase its supply to a certain extent. This extent or limit is the capacity of the godown of that producer to store that thing. The value of this market is known as market value.

Question 7.
What is meant by Long-term Market?
Answer:
A long-term Market is that state of the market in which the supply of anything can be increased or decreased according to the demand of that thing. Balance can be maintained in both demand and supply in this type of state. The value of this market is known as general value.

Question 8.
What is meant by the Jajmani system?
Answer:
This was a system existing in rural areas in which different castes provided their services to upper castes. In lieu of their services, they were being provided some portion from agricultural produce or some other things.

Question 9.
What is meant by Exchange?
Answer:
In common sense, the exchange is the giving and taking of things and services between two parties. In economics, the exchange is the legal, optional, and mutual giving and taking of goods and money.

Question 10.
What is commodification? Explain with examples. (C.B.S.E. 2010)
Answer:
Commoditization occurs when things that were earlier not traded in the market become commodities. For example, labor or skills become things that can be bought and sold.

Question 11.
What was Hundi?
Answer:
Hundi was a bill of exchange, like a credit note, which allowed merchants to engage in long-distance trade. A merchant in one part of the country could issue a hundi that would be honored by a merchant in another place.

Question 12.
What is liberalization?
Answer:
liberalization is the lifting of unnecessary restrictions in a controlled economy. The lifting of unnecessary restrictions from industries and businesses, so that economy could become more competitive, open and progressive, is known as liberalization. It is an economic process that brings changes in society.

Question 13.
What is Globalisation?
Answer:
Globalization is that process in which the economy of one country is attached to the economies of other countries. It means that the unrestricted exchange of things, services, capital, and labor of one country with other countries is known as globalization. There is an open and free exchange of trade between different countries.

Question 14.
What are the reasons for liberalization?
Answer:

• To develop more means of employment so that people could get enough employment.
• To produce more and more competition among industries so that consumers should get more and more profit.

Question 15.
What is Privatisation?
Answer:
Socialist and Democratic countries have a mixed type of economy that has public enterprises, under the direct control of the government. Sometimes the government gives control of these public enterprises to private companies so that they could earn more and more profit. This process of giving public enterprises to private hands is known as privatization.

Question 16.
What were the positive results of globalization over India?
Answer:

1. India’s share in world export has been increased.
2. Foreign investment in India has been increased.
3. India’s foreign reserve has been increased.

Question 17.
What changes have taken place due to marketization? (C.B.S.E. 2017 (OD))
Answer:
Changes due to marketization –

1. Removal of economic controls (deregulations)
2. Privatization of industries
3. Removing government control over wages and prices
4. Lead to better economic growth

Question 18.
In what way consumption pattern is related to a status symbol? (C.B.S.E. 2017 (D))
Answer:
Relation of Consumption pattern to a status symbol – Things people consume, use, indicate their status in society; their lifestyle, etc e.g. brand of cell phone, a model of car, decoration of home, way of dressing, leisure activities, etc.

Question 19.
Why coastal cities were favored by the colonial rulers? (C.B.S.E. 2017 (D))
Answer:
They were the primary link between the economic centre and core in Britain and periphery margins in colonized India (Coastal cities such as Bombay, Calcutta & Madras were developed by the British in India. This may be mentioned as Mumbai, Kolkata, Chennai also.)

The Market as a Social Institution Important Extra Questions Short Answer Type

Question 1.
What are the main objectives of liberalization?
Answer:

1. the Main objective of liberalization is to produce more opportunities for employment.
2. To attract foreign investment to produce employment opportunities.
3. Making Indian companies competitive in the Indian market.
4. To give more and more freedom to the private sector.
5. To increase the production capacity of the country.

Question 2.
Give some features of liberalization policy.
Answer:

1. Except for few things, the policy of taking licenses was eliminated so that all the industries could develop very easily.
2. Privatization of public enterprises was started so that the deficit making enterprises could be changed into profit-making enterprises.
3. Very few industries have been left for the public sector so that all the industries could be encouraged.
4. The limit of foreign direct investment has been increased. In many sectors it is up to 51%, in many, it is 74% and in many sectors, complete investment has been permitted.

Question 3.
Give some characteristics of Globalisation.
Answer:
United Nations’ development program has given four characteristics of globalization and these are:

1. New tools and things have come for people in globalization because large companies of the world are going in every country.
2. New markets have been opened for companies because, in globalization, companies can do free trade in any country.
3. New organizations sire coming forward to do works of globalization like the Red Cross, World Trade Organization, etc.
4. New laws and rules are coming forward due to globalization like jobs on contract instead of permanent jobs.

Question 4.
In how many phases process of liberalization in India can be divided?
Answer:
The process of liberalization in India can be divided into 4 phases:

1. The first phase of 1975-1980
2. The second phase of 1980-1985
3. The third phase of 1985-1991
4. The fourth phase of 1991 onwards.

Question 5.
Give four principles of Globalization
Or
What are some of the processes included under the label globalization? (C.B.S.E. 2013)
Answer:

1. The opening up of the economy of the country for foreign investment.
2. To reduce custom duty up to a maximum extent.
3. Disinvestment of public enterprises.
4. To encourage investment in the private sector.

Question 6.
What are the changes that came in tribal weekly markets?
Answer:
Changes came in tribal weekly markets with the passage of time. These areas were connected with regional and national economies during the colonial period. Roads were made in their areas and their areas were made open for outsiders so that minerals and forest wealth could be taken out. That is why non-tribal people, traders, and moneylenders reached to their areas. New goods came into their markets. Forest produce was sold to outsiders. Tribals were kept as laborers in mines and tea-gardens. Tribal started buying outsider goods by taking loans and they became poorer.

Question 7.
What is meant by Production?
Answer:
Production is that process with which anything is made to fulfill any need of the person. It can be defined in the form of using anything. Many things are required to produce anything like natural resources, human force, labor, technology, entrepreneur, etc. In this way production is a process in which man produces anything to satisfy his needs and then, he uses that thing.

Question 8.
What do you mean by Consumption?
Answer:
Consumption is also necessary with production because, without consumption, production is not possible. Consumption means to use anything and to use means that quality that makes anything able to satisfy the needs of the person. It is the main function of every society to regulate and control the consumption for society.

Question 9.
What is Distribution?
Answer:
For a layman, the meaning of distribution is to take anything from one place to another and to sell that thing. But in economics, distribution is that process with which the actual and complete value of anything is distributed among those persons who have contributed to the production of that thing. Different persons and groups have their own specific contribution in the production of anything and they should be rewarded for that. In this way, the money or reward given to them is distributed. For example, rent to the owner of the land, labor to laborer, interest to the person who has invested money, tax to the government. All of them get a share in this form.

Question 10.
What do you mean by Capitalism?
Answer:
Capitalism is an economic system in which private property is of great importance. Production in capitalism is on large scale and we can see stiff competition among different capitalists. Capitalist tries to get more profit because of which he invests his money. This money and credit are of great importance in capitalism. The biggest feature of capitalism is the exploitation of laborers.

Question 11.
Write characteristics of Capitalism.
Answer:

1. Production in capitalism is on large scale.
2. The base of capitalism is private property.
3. There is a lot of competition among different classes in capitalism.
4. Capitalist invests his money to get more profit.
5. The exploitation of laborers is there in capitalism.
6. Money and credit are of great importance in a capitalist economy.

Question 12.
In agrarian societies, periodic markets are a central feature of social and economic organizations. Explain. (C.B.S.E. 2012)
Answer:
In most agrarian or peasant societies around the world, periodic markets are a central feature of social and economic organization. Weakly markets bring together people from surrounding villages, who come to sell their agricultural or other products and to buy manufactured goods and other items that are not available in their villages.

They attract traders from outside the local area, as well as moneylenders, entertainers, astrologers, and a host of other specialists offering their services and wares. In rural India, there are also specialized markets that come up at less frequent intervals, for example, cattle markets. These periodic markets link different regional and local economies together and link them to the wider national economy and to towns and metropolitan centers.

The Market as a Social Institution Important Extra Questions Essay Answer Type

Question 1.
What is Globalisation? Explain briefly.
Answer:
The process of Globalisation is a wide economic process that can be seen in all societies and countries. Different countries have free trade and economic relations in this process. Actually, not even a single country is completely self-dependent to fulfill its need. It has to depend upon other countries to fulfill the basic needs of its people. With this, even other countries are also dependent upon each other to fulfill their needs.

Because of this mutual dependence, mutual relations were increased in different countries and one idea came into being to increase relations of free trade in each other’s country. This idea of increasing economic relations and free trade is given the name of Globalisation. The concept of Globalisation gave rise to the concept of liberalization in which different countries are opening their doors for other countries to have duty-free trade relations among them.

The concept of Globalisation is not very old. It is as old as 15-20 years which has taken the whole world in its fold. That is why the world is shrinking these days. We can get the foreign-made goods while living in our small town or city. We can see any sector of the country. For example, many foreign cars like Mercedes, General Motors, Rolls Royce, Ferrari, Honda, Mitsubishi, Hyundai, Skoda, Toyota, etc. came to India, which were not available in the decade of 1980s.

It is happening because of Globalisation and liberalization that the market of our country is opened for foreign companies. In this way, a lot of foreign-made goods and Indian goods are available in our country. It is Globalisation in which different countries are opening their doors for foreign companies and are encouraging free trade. These days the world is shrinking and now it is just like a small village or town. The government is increasing Foreign Direct Investments (FDI) in every sector. This is called Globalisation.

Question 2.
Explain briefly the different characteristics of Globalisation.
Answer:
1. World Trade. The first and necessary condition of Globalisation is world trade. It is the main base of trade in the world. It unites the people of different sectors living in different countries and gives them business. For example, India has a lot of surplus tea. That is why different countries of the world are importing tea from India. In the same way, almost all the countries of the world depend upon Arabian countries for crude oil. In this way, with the exchange of goods and because of trade they are coming closer to each other. People of India depend upon Arabian people and they depend upon us. World Trade and Globalisation has been increased.

2. Economic globalization: Globalisation has established a new economy in the world. Now the economy of one country depends upon the economy of another country. That is why the concept of the world economy came into being. Different countries unite with each other because of the economy and the exchange of cultural traits starts between them. Investment, exchange of division of labor, specialization, production, consumption, etc. have an important role in this business. Economic globalization has encouraged capitalism. Now, people are thinking even for international economy and structure.

3. Globalisation of market: Globalisation has increased the market to a great extent. Now, globalization of the market is not being done only on the basis of production but is also on the basis of consumption. Companies are producing things while keeping in mind the market of other countries or international markets. Even some countries depend on others for consumption. In this way, production and consumption depend upon the foreign market. With this, the business with other countries increases and foreign exchange comes into the country. In this way, the market depends upon foreign countries. We can find a number of foreign-made goods in our market. Even the eatables are available in markets. In this way, the market is expanded with globalization.

4. Division of labor: Globalisation has encouraged the division of labor. Now, people are doing many courses to go to a foreign country. For example, people are doing a number of computer courses so that they could earn money in a foreign country. We can see many types of advertisements in newspapers that specialists in different countries are required. Division of labor is encouraged because specialists are in great demand in different countries of the wound. It is the feature of globalization that has encouraged the division of labor.

5. Migration of laborers to other countries: Another feature of globalization is the migration of workers from one country to another country in search of work. Generally, people, specialists in different sectors from South Asian countries are going to western countries for work because they think that they can earn more in western countries. Workers of different countries are working in foreign lands and are earning money. In this way because of globalization people of different countries have been able to migrate to other countries.

6. World economy: Another feature of globalization is the encouragement of the world economy. Now the economy of one country is not restricted only to that country because its economy is affected by the economies of other countries. With the increase in trade, economies depend upon each other. In this way because of inter-dependence, the world economy and world trade have been increased.

Question 3.
What is the impact of Globalisation on the Indian Economy?
Answer:
1. Increase of the Indian Share in world export: With the process of globalization, the Indian share in world export has been increased. Indian goods and services in the decade of 1990-2000 have been increased by 125%. In 1990, the Indian share in the world’s export of goods and services was 0.55% which was increased up to 0.75% in 1999.

2. Foreign investment in India: Foreign direct investment is an important feature of globalization because foreign investment increases the capacity of production of any economy. Foreign investment in India is continuously increasing. From 1995-96 up to 2000-01, it has been increased by 53% and during this time 500 crores have been invested in India annually.

3. Foreign Exchange Reserve: Foreign exchange is necessary for import. In June 1991, the foreign exchange reserve in India was 1 Billion Dollars which was enough only to fulfill the needs of only two weeks of the country. After this India adopted new economic policies. Globalization and liberalization were encouraged because of which foreign exchange reserve was increased very quickly. Now, the foreign exchange reserve is near 350 Billion Dollars. ‘

4. Growth of Gross Domestic Product: Because of globalization the gross domestic product (GDP) of the country has been increased. In 1980, it was 5.63% which was increased to 5.80% in 1990. Now, it is around 7%.

5. Increase in Unemployment: Because of globalization, unemployment in India has been increased. During the decade of 1990-2000, the economic problems came in Mexico, South Korea, Thailand, Singapur, Indonesia, Malasia and it was because of globalization.

That is why millions of people lost their jobs and they had to live below the poverty line. At the start of the 1990’s the rate of unemployment was 6% which was 3.8% in 2011.

6. Impact on Agriculture: The share of agriculture and its related activities in the Gross Domestic Product of the country is 14%. But it is 2% in the U.S.A., 55% in Japan and France. If we look at the labor force then India’s 69% labor force is related to agricultural functions but the labor force in the agricultural sector in U.S.A. and U.K. is only 2.6%. In the near future, it is necessary for India to open its market for world companies in the agricultural sector which is in agreement with W.T.O.

7. Educational and technical development: Globalisation and liberalization have exerted a great impact on the education and technology sector which has seen a revolution. The world has been shrinking due to means of transport and communication. Internet and computer have brought a revolution in this sector.

8. Change in the form of Classes: Globalisation has changed the form of different classes. In the 20th century, only three main classes i.e., higher class, middle class, and lower class were there but now the number of classes has been increased.

9. Privatization: One of the good effects of globalization can be seen in the form of Privatisation. Many public sector undertakings (P.S.U.’S) like V.S.N.L., I.P.C.L., NALCO are now in the hands of private parties because of which they are earning huge profits.

10. Development of Industries. Foreign direct investment is very helpful in achieving a higher rate of economic development. It gives not the only advantage to industries but consumers are getting products of better quality and better technology. It gives motivation to Indian industries to compete with foreign companies in the international market.

Thus, the process of globalization is very good in bringing social change and giving good quality products to consumers in India.

Question 4.
What is meant by liberalization? Which problems occurred due to liberalization?
Answer:
Meaning of liberalization. Lifting up of unnecessary restrictions of the controlled economy is liberalization. Lifting up unnecessary restrictions from businesses and industries, so that economy could become more competitive and open, is called liberalization. liberalization is a process in which different countries of the world are motivated to provide such facilities with which free business and trade could develop among them.

One of its aims is to reach the objective of better international economic relations. This process encourages wide business and economic relations between different countries of the world. This policy increases the working capacity of the economy and private enterprises have the ability to give better results than public enterprises.

Problems of liberalization. This process brought up many problems in India which are given below:
1. Increase in Unemployment. The unemployment rate in India was 6% in 1990, which became 7% in 1999 and it was 3.8% in 2011. It is only the result of liberalization. 36% of the total population of India still lives below the poverty line because they lack basic amenities. Domestic industries are directly related to employment because they give a lot of employment to a number of people.

If industries will increase then more and more people will get employment. But if local industries will be destroyed then not only unemployment but poverty will also increase. The process of liberalization is going on for more than is the year in our country. Large industries are coming forward but domestic and cottage industries are destroyed by these larger industries. It has increased unemployment.

2. Evil consequences of liberalization. Industries begin to throw out their employees from factories with this process. When the policy of liberalization was implemented then it was told that this process will solve all the problems of the country. But even after such a long time not much impact has been seen on our economy. 36% of the total Indian population still lives below the poverty line. Yet India got technical advantage through this but certain areas are there which have faced evil consequences of this process.

3. Increasing pressure of foreign debt. The first era of economic reforms was started in 1991 and went until 2001. The second era was started in 2001. During the second era, it was thought that the rate of economic growth of the country will increase but nothing happened. Steps on the way of economic progress and economic reforms became slower. The aim of economic growth was kept at 8% but it fluctuated all the time. The pressure of foreign debt is increasing. India has to pay 349.5 billion dollars of foreign debt in 2012 and that is why every Indian is under the debt of foreign countries. All this has happened because of the process of liberalization.

4. Decrease in Export and Increase in Import. Export of India has also been reduced by process of liberalization and also import has increased. Import as compared to 1991, was increased in 1996 and export was reduced. Its reason was that western things came into our country and the people started to use those things. That is why imports were increased and export was decreased. Balance of business was also destabilized. Increasing import has adversely affected local industries. Western things are durable and less expensive. That is the reason why local industries are adversely affected.

5. Reduction in Value of Rupee. The value of the rupee has been decreased to a great extent due to liberalization. The value of one dollar was Rs. 18 in 1991, it became Rs. 36 in 1996 and Rs. 47 in 2001. Now, it is around Rs. 67. It is all because of liberalization. The decline in the monetary value of a country led to an increase in inflation which is also not good for poor people. It might be profitable for developed countries but is disastrous for developing countries. In this way value of the rupee has been declining due to liberalization.

Question 5.
What do you know about capitalism? Write in detail.
Answer:
Capitalism is an economic system in which private property is of great importance. Capitalism does not its an advanced stage at once but it develops slowly. To see its development we have to study it from ancient societies.

In ancient societies, the system of exchange of goods was there. There was no concept of profit at that time. People were not collecting things for profit but were collecting for those days when those things will become unavailable. The business system was generally dependent upon the exchange of service and goods. No one was aware of economic factors like labor, investment, individual profit during those times.

In the middle ages, business and commerce developed a bit. Yet, in the beginning, the business was based on the system of exchange and gradually money became the medium of business. It has given a type of motivation to business and commerce because of which the importance of money, gold, silver, and coin was increased. Money was, yet, not the property, but was the symbol of property. It has a complete effect on the production forces and features. According to Simmer, the institution of money has affected all parts of life when it became systematic in modern western society.

It has given the freedom to owner and servant and also affects the things and services and buyers and sellers because with this formal relations came into being in both sides of the business. According to Simmer, money has brought a lot of changes in the philosophy of our life. It has made us practical because now we are measuring everything in terms of money. Social relationships and social contact have become informal and formal. Human relationships have become cold.

At the beginning of modem times, economic activities were regulated by governmental forces. In this, we can see the shadow of moving forward of European people under their monarchs. At this time economic activities were regulated by the political authority so that the king’s profit is increased and treasure should be filled. The country was running under the supervision of businessmen and the businessmen were engaged in earning money like an economic organization. Production forces were also regulated by business laws.

After this, the industrial revolution came, which changed the ways of production. Business policies were unsuccessful in doing the welfare of the people. For the production of more things policy of ‘Laissez Fairer was adopted. According to this policy, there will be no interference in economic matters. According to this, any person can see his individual interests, there was no pressure and burden on him. The state has stopped interfering in economic matters. According to Sumner, State should remove all the restrictions which were put on business and commerce and it should remove all the restrictions which were put on production, exchange, and accumulation of money. Adam Smith has given four concepts at this moment:

1. The policy of individual interest.
2. Policy of Laissez Fairer
3. Theory of competition, and
4. To see a profit.

These concepts have put a great effect on that particular time. Under the effect of these rules and because of the industrial revolution new system of property and ownership of production came into, being which was given the name of capitalism. Because of the industrial revolution, the domestic system of production was changed into the production in factories. In factories, every work has been divided into small parts and every laborer was doing small work. That is why production was increased.

With the passage of time, big industries came into being. Big owner corporations of these industries came into being. In this new system of production and exchange, owners of means of production were different individuals and they had no social responsibility. The property was completely private and it was totally free from the restrictions of state, religion, family, and other institutions. Owners of the factories were free to do anything. Their main aim was profit. They were not restricted to produce anything without profit. The way of production was profitable and the government had adopted the policy of no-interference and it helped the owners of means of production in this way.

Question 6.
What is meant by the Market? Explain the main features of the Market.
Answer:
In common everyday usage, the word Market may refer to particular markets such as the fruit market, the wholesale market, the vegetable market. It means we relate it with the economy. But it is also a social institution. Sociologists are of the view that markets are social institutions that are constructed in culturally specific ways. Markets are generally organized or controlled by particular social groups or classes and have specific relations to other institutions, social processes, and structures. From an economic point of view, only economic activities and institutions are included in markets. It means that only mutual exchange or contracts take place in the market which is based upon money.

In both Economics and Sociology, a market is understood to be an area over which any well-defined commodity is exchanged between buyers and sellers. Such commodities are considered to be of two kinds-goods and services. The total amount of a commodity produced and available for purchase is referred to as the supply of the commodity, while the total amount being sought for purchase is termed the demand.

(Features of Market)
The following are the main features of a Market:
1. Mutual exchange: First and most important feature of the market is a mutual exchange. In general, the market is based on mutual exchange. In this, either things are given for things, or things are given for money, or services are given for things. If mutual exchange would not be there would not have been a market.

2. Continuous process: The market is a continuously changing institution. We can observe any of the society like modern society, rural society, or tribal society. The market is available in all societies. If anyone wants to run the house then he is required to go to the market to buy things. It leads to regulation of the market as well.

3. Formal relations: Another feature of the market is that people have formal relations among them. Yet, people know very well about shopkeepers of the market but their mutual relations are limited to a certain extent. If they have good relations among them, even then they cannot exert a great impact on market rules. The shopkeeper will definitely take his profit. It hardly matters whether it is less or more. Relations in the market could be made between two strangers.

4. Medium: Medium of exchange is used according to market rules. This medium could be in any form like things, money, or services. The number of goods could be reduced or increased according to the value of the medium. Contracts are always based on the quantity of medium and mutual exchange that takes place according to this.

5. Relations based on a contract: Relations in the market are always based on the contract. These relations are always formal. Rules of a contract are applicable on all markets in one form or the other and everyone is bound to accept these rules. In modem industrial society, relations based on contract are in demand.

Here we are providing Class 12 Economics Important Extra Questions and Answers Chapter 7 Employment: Growth, Informalisation and Other Issues. Economics Class 12 Important Questions are the best resource for students which helps in class 12 board exams.

Class 12 Economics Chapter 7 Important Extra Questions Employment: Growth, Informalisation and Other Issues

Employment: Growth, Informalisation and Other Issues Important Extra Questions Very Short Answer Type

Question 1.
Define employment.
Answer:
Employment is a situation in which a person, who is able and willing to work at existing wage, gets work.

Question 2.
Who are workers?
Answer:
Workers are those who are engaged in economic activities and contribute to the Gross National Product.

Question 3.
Give the formula for calculating worker-population ratio.
Answer:
Worker-population ratio is calculated as:
\(\frac{\text { Total Number of Workers }}{\text { Total Population }} \times 100\)

Question 4.
What is the share of women in rural workforce.
Answer:
Women workers constitute one-third of the rural workforce.

Question 5.
Name different types of workers.
Answer:
The different types of workers are:
(i) Regular salaried employees
(ii) Casual workers
(iii) Self-employed

Question 6.
Why is the share of self-employed is greater in rural areas?
Answer:
The share of self-employed is greater in rural areas because majority of those depending on farming own plots of land and cultivate independently.

Question 7.
Give the distribution of workforce by industry in rural areas.
Answer:
The distribution of workforce by industry in rural areas during 201 I -12 is as below:
(i) Primary sector – 64.1 percent
(ii) Secondary sector – 20.4 percent
(iii) Tertiary sector – 15.5 percent

Question 8.
When does jobless growth take place?
Answer:
Jobless growth takes place when a country produces more goods and services without generating employment.

Question 9.
Define casualisation of workforce.
Answer:
Casualisation of workforce means movement from self-employment and regular salaried employment to casual wage work.

Question 10.
Which of these are unorganised sector activities?
(i) A teacher
(ii) A headload worker
(iii) A farmer
(iv) A doctor
(v) A daily wage labourer
(vi) A factory worker
Answer:
The headload worker, farmer, daily wage labourer and factory worker are involved in unorganised sector activities.

Question 11.
Define unemployment.
Answer:
Unemployment is a situation in which the person who is willing to work at the prevailing wages is unable to find jobs.

Question 12.
Suggest one way to resolve the problem of underemployment in rural areas.
Answer:
Government can identify, promote and locate industries in semi-rural areas to generate employment opportunities.

Question 13.
State the objective of the National Rural Employment Guarantee Act 2005.
Answer:
The objective of the NREGA 2005 is to provide 100 days of guaranteed wage employment to all rural households who volunteer to do unskilled manual work.

Employment: Growth, Informalisation and Other Issues Important Extra Questions Short Answer Type

Question 1.
Why is it important to study about working people?
Answer:
It is important to study about working people to:
(i) understand the quality and nature of employment in our country;
(ii) facilitate planning of our human resources; .
(iii) analyse the contribution of different industries and sectors towards national income; and
(iv) address social issues such as exploitation of backward sections of the society, child labour, etc.

Question 2.
Why are women employed in low paid work?
Answer:
Women are employed in low paid work due to the following reasons:
(i) There is division of labour between men and women due to historical and cultural reasons.
(ii) Literacy rate and skill formation is low among women.
(iii) Legal protection of women employees is meager.
(iv) Most women find jobs in which there is no job security.

Out of 473 million workers in the country, about 30 million workers are engaged in the formal sector and 443 million workers are engaged in informal sector. Hence, workers in the formal sector constitutes only six percent of the total workforce. Of these 30 million formal sector workers, only 6 million, that is, only about 21 percent are women and 79 percent are men. In the informal sector, female and male workers account for 31 and 69 percent of the workforce respectively.

Question 3.
Explain the employment of people in various industries and their status.
Answer:
(i) There has been substantial shift from agriculture to industries and service sector. Although primary sector continues to remain the main source of employment of workers over the last six decades, its share has decreased from 74 percent in 1951 to 49 percent in 2012.

With the process of development in the country, the share of employment is increasing in secondary and tertiary sectors. The share of industries has increased from 11 to 24 percent and that of service sector has increased from 15 to 27 percent during 1950-2012.

(ii) The changes in the distribution of workforce in different status over the last four decades indicate that people have moved from self-employment and regular salaried employment to casual wage work.

Question 4.
Compare the employment conditions prevailing in the organised and unorganised sectors.
Answer:
Comparison between Organised Sector and Unorganised Sector

Question 5.
Workers are exploited in the unorganised sector. Do you agree with this view? Give reasons in support of your answer.
Answer:
Unorganised sector comprises of small and scattered units, which are largely outside the control of the government. Workers in the unorganised sector are often exploited because of the following reasons:

• No rules and regulations
• Irregular and low-paid jobs
• No provision for overtime, leaves, etc.
• No job security
• Social discrimination

Question 6.
What is meant by disguised unemployment? Explain giving an example.
Answer:
In disguised unemployment, more than required persons are engaged in a job. People appear to be employed but they are actually unemployed. This type of unemployment usually happens among family members engaged in agricultural activity. Suppose there are 7 members in a family.

Although the work requires the service of only 4 people, all-the members of a family find work on that agricultural plot. The output of the field will not decline if 3 members are removed from the process. These 3 members are disguisedly unemployed.

Question 7.
What is the difference between disguised unemployment and seasonal unemployment?
Answer :
Following are the main points of difference between disguised and seasonal unemployment:

Question 8.
What are the disadvantages of unemployment? Explain.
Answer:
The main disadvantages of unemployment are:
(i) Increase in Poverty: The main cause of poverty is unemployment. People do not have enough money to support their family. This leads to the situation of poverty.

(ii) Wastage of Resource: Human capital is an important economic resource. Unemployment leads to wastage of manpower resource. People who are an asset for the economy turn into a liability. This creates a feeling of despair among the youth.

(iii) Increase in Dependent Population: Unemployment tends to increase the economic overload. The dependence of the unemployed on the working population increases.

Question 9.
What is unemployment? What are the most common types of unemployment found in India?
Answer:
Unemployment is a situation in which the people who are willing to work at the prevailing wages are unable to find jobs. The most common types of unemployment found in India are:

(i) Seasonal Unemployment: This type of unemployment takes place when people are not able to find jobs during some months of the year. The situation of seasonal unemployment arises mainly in agricultural sector people are busy during sowing, harvesting, weeding and threshing. However, there are certain months in which they do not get much work.

(ii) Disguised Unemployment: In disguised unemployment, more than required persons are engaged in a job. This type of unemployment usually happens among family members engaged in agricultural activity.

Employment: Growth, Informalisation and Other Issues Important Extra Questions Long Answer Type

Question 1.
What are the causes of informalisation of work force in India?
Answer:
The following are the causes of informalisation of work force in India:
(i) Close Down of the Enterprises: Many enterprises were incurring losses during 1980’s and 90’s and hence, were closed down. This had driven a large number of workers in informal sector. For example, in the early 1980’s, textile mills all over the country began to dose down.

In Mumbai, the mills closed rapidly. But in Ahmedabad. the close-down process spread over 10 years due to strong trade unions. Approximately 80,000 permanent workers and ever 50,000 non-permanent workers lost their jobs and were driven to the informal sector.

(ii) Losses Making Public Sector: Due to the losses incurred by public sector enterprise, the Government of India either disinvests or closes down these enterprises. This causes informalisation of the workforce. Increasing Population: Employment generation in the formal sector fail to match the needs of rapidly increasing population. As a result, people are forced to take up casual jobs to earn a living.

Question 2.
How are the activities in the economy classified on the basis of employment conditions?
Answer:
The activities in the economy on the basis of employment conditions are classified as organised sector and unorganised sector.

(i) Organised Sector: It covers those enterprises or places of work where the terms of employment are regular and therefore, people have assured work. Its features are:

• Formal processes and procedures
• Proper rules and regulations
• Job security
• Fixed number of job hours, paid overtime for working more
• Get paid leave, payment during holidays
• Get provident fund, gratuity and pensions on retirement
• Safe working environment

(ii) Unorganised Sector: Unorganised sector comprises of small and scattered units, which are largely outside the control of the government. Its features are:

• No rules and regulations
• Irregular and low-paid jobs
• No provision for overtime, leaves, etc.
• No job security
• Social discrimination

Question 3.
What are the causes of unemployment in India?
Answer:
The following are major causes of unemployment in India:
(i) Increase in Population: There has been tremendous increase in the population in India since : 1951. Consequently the number of working population has also increased. Thus, increasing pressure of population has accentuated the problem of unemployment.

(ii) Failure of Planning: Planning could not create as many jobs as the number of jobs-seekers. Thus, faulty planning is also responsible for unemployment.

(iii) Neglect ofAgriculture: Agriculture was not paid due attention during different plans. Comparatively less expenditure was made on this sector. As a result, agriculture could not develop fully.

(iv) Neglect of Small Scale and Cottage Industries: Small scale and cottage industries are labour intensive. But these industries could not develop in India appreciably. The plans laid more stress on capital intensive heavy, basic and large industries.

(v) Slow Industrial Growth: Industrial growth rate has been very slow in India due to vane reasons. It has increased urban unemployment.

(vi) Defective Education System: Our education system lays more emphasis on ‘general’ education rather than ‘vocational’ one. It is not job-oriented and this leads to rapid increase in white-collar unemployment.

Question 4.
Explain the various self-employment and wage generation programmes initiated by the government to solve the problem of unemployment.
Answer:
The various self-employment and wage generation programmes initiated by the government to solve the problem of unemployment are:
(i) Food for work Programme (FWP): FWP was launched in the 1970s for the upliftment of the poor. Under this programme, foodgrains are distributed against the wage work.

(ii) Prime Minister’s RozgarYojana (PMRY): This programme has been implemented by the Khadi and Village Industries Commission, which aims at creating self-employment opportunities in rural areas and small towns. One can get financial assistance with bank loans to set up small enterprises under this programme.

Under PMRY, the educated unemployed from low-income families in both rural and urban areas can get financial help to set up any type of industry, which generates employment.

(iii) Swarna Jayanti Shahari RozgarYojana (SJSRY): It aims at creating employment opportunities, both self-employment and wage employment in urban areas. Individuals were given financial assistance under self-employment programmes.

(iv) Swarnajayanthi Gram SwarozgarYojana: Sawamajayanthi Gram Swarozgar Yojana was launched in April 1999 and is the only self-employment programme currently being implemented. It aims at promoting micro enterprises and to bring the assisted poor families (Swarozgcris) above the poverty line by organising them into Self-Help Groups through the process of social mobilisation, training and capacity building and provision of income generating assets through a mix of Bank Credit and Government subsidy.

(v) Sampoorna Grameen RozgarYojana (SGRY): SGRY was launched in September 2001. The schemes Jawahar Gram Samridhi Yojana and Employment Assurance Scheme have been fully integrated with SGRY. The objective of the scheme is to provide additional wage employment along with food security, creation of durable community, social and economic assets and infrastructure development in the rural areas. The scheme envisages generation of 100 man-days of employment in a year.

(vi) National Food for Work Programme (NFWP): National Food for Work Programme was launched on November 14, 2004 in 150 most backward districts of the India, It is implemented as a 100 percent centrally sponsored scheme and the food grains are provided to States free of cost. The objective of the programme was to intensify the generation of supplementary wage employment.

Employment: Growth, Informalisation and Other Issues Important Extra Questions HOTS

Question 1.
Disguised unemployment is not prevalent in agriculture alone. Comment.
Answer:
Disguised unemployment is the characteristic feature of the Indian agriculture. It is almost rampant for owing to heavy pressure of population, joint family system and the lack of vocational avenues outside agriculture. However, it is a phenomenon not confined in agriculture alone.

A deeper look into the functioning of public sector enterprises shows lots of people sitting idle all the time. It is a point to the fact the more people are employed than actually needed. Surely, it is a sign of disguised unemployment.

Question 2.
Population of India is increasing at a much faster rate as compared to employment opportunities.
Give some suggestions to rectify the situation.
Answer:
The following steps can be taken to increase employment opportunities:

• Increase in productivity
• Increase in production
• Educational reforms
• Help to self-employed persons
• Focus on vocational training

Question 3.
What are the causes of informalisation of work force in India?
Answer:
The following are the causes of informalisation of work force in India:
(i) Close Down of the Enterprises: Many enterprises were incurring losses during 1980’s and 90’s and hence, were closed down. This had driven a large number of workers in informal sector. For example, in the early 1980’s, textile mills all over the country began to dose down. In Mumbai, the mills closed rapidly.

But in Ahmedabad. the close-down process spread over 10 years due to strong trade unions. Approximately 80,000 permanent workers and ever 50,000 non-permanent workers lost their jobs and were driven to the informal sector.

(ii) Losses Making Public Sector: Due to the losses incurred by public sector enterprise, the Government of India either disinvests or closes down these enterprises. This causes informalisation of the workforce. Increasing Population: Employment generation in the formal sector fail to match the needs of rapidly increasing population. As a result, people are forced to take up casual jobs to earn a living.

Here we are providing Class 12 Sociology Important Extra Questions and Answers Chapter 3 Social Institutions: Continuity and Change. Sociology Class 12 Important Questions are the best resource for students which helps in class 12 board exams.

Class 12 Sociology Chapter 3 Important Extra Questions Social Institutions: Continuity and Change

Social Institutions Important Extra Questions Very Short Answer Type

Question 1.
Give the meaning of Caste.
Answer:
The Hindu social system has one of the important complex and interesting institutions which is known as the caste system. Word ‘Caste’ has been taken from the Portuguese word ‘Casta’ which means birth. A caste is an endogamous group whose membership is based on birth. Occupation in this is hereditary and traditional.

Question 2.
Give any three characteristics of Caste.
Answer:

1. Membership of caste is based upon birth.
2. A caste is an endogamous group.
3. Castes were traditionally linked to occupations.

Question 3.
Give merits of Caste.
Answer:

• Caste does the division of labor.
• Caste maintains social unity.
• Caste maintains the purity of blood.
• Caste makes the rules of education.

Question 4.
How caste provides social security?
Answer:
Caste provides social security to its members. Members of every caste are always ready to help the members of their caste. There was no need for a person to be worried from any point of view because he was aware of the fact that his caste will definitely help him if any need arises.

Question 5.
Describe the functions of caste.
Answer:

1. Caste determines the occupation of a person.
2. Caste provides social security to a person.
3. Caste gives mental security to a person.
4. Caste maintains the purity of the blood.

Question 6.
Define Caste.
Answer:
According to Risley, “Caste is a collection of families or group of families bearing a common name, claiming a common descent from a mythical ancestor, human or divine, professing to follow the name hereditary calling and regarded by those who are competent to give an opinion as forming a single homogeneous community.”

Question 7.
What are the causes of change in caste?
Or
Why is Caste changing?
Answer:

• Because of socio-religious movements.
• Efforts of Indian government and making of legislations.
• Because of the changes made by the British.
• Because of changes in caste due to industrialization.

Question 8.
Give Demerits of Caste System.
Answer:

• The caste system causes discrimination, inequality, prejudice, etc.
• The caste system breeds untouchability.
• The caste system causes casteism.
• The caste system leads to communal conflict.

Question 9.
Into how many parts ancient Indian society was divided?
Answer:
It was divided into the following four parts:

1. Brahmins: They used to impart education to the upper three castes.
2. Kshatriyas: They used to protect the country from any type of aggression.
3. Vaishyas: They were either engaged in business or agriculture.
4. Fourth varna: They used to serve the upper three castes.

Question 10.
What is the role of caste in spreading culture?
Answer:
Every caste has its own occupations, eating habits, living standards, etc. An individual observes all the customs and rituals associated with caste and also teaches them to his children. In this way, culture goes down from one generation to another and caste plays a very important role in it.

Question 11.
What are the changes coming in Caste System?
Answer:
Many changes came in the caste system due to western education, industrialization, urbanization, means of communication, etc. Almost all the restrictions of the caste system are coming improved to an end. Inter-caste marriages are increasing, the position of lower caste has been improved, steps have been taken against all types of discrimination, and problems regarding occupation is no more in the society.

Question 12.
What is a Tribe?
Or
Who are the Tribals? (C.B.S.E. 2017 (O.D.))
Answer:
A tribe is that group of people who lives away from our civilization on mountains, forests, and valleys traditionally. This group lives in a specific geographical area and have their own language, culture, and religion. These groups are endogamous groups and obey some rules from the point of view of love, occupation, and industry.

Question 13.
Give the definition of Tribe.
Answer:
According to the Imperial Gazetteer of India, “A tribe is a collection of families bearing a common name, speaking a common dialect, occupying or professing to occupy a common territory and is not usually endogamous, though originally it might have been so.”

Question 14.
What do you mean by Inter-caste marriage?
Answer:
When any person marries a girl of other castes instead of his own caste then it is known as Inter-caste marriage. In ancient times, marriage out of the caste was not allowed. But there is no such restriction in modern times.

Question 15.
Give the meaning of Family.
Answer:
A family is a social institution in which a husband and wife are socially entitled to procreate and bring up their children. It is a social set up in which people with blood relation live together.

Question 16.
Define the Family.
Answer:
According to Nimkoff, “A family is more or less a durable association of husband and wife with or without children or of a man or woman alone with children.” According to Maclver, “The family is a group defined by sex relationship sufficiently precise and enduring to provide for the procreation and upbringing of children.”

Question 17.
What are the characteristics or features of a Family?
Answer:

1. There is no human society in which some form of a family does not appear. Therefore, it is universal.
2. Family is based on human relationships, trust and other emotions, and sentimental values.
3. The family has a central position in a social structure.
4. Family is a bond of blood relations.
5. Members of the family share responsibilities, duties, and obligations amongst themselves.
6. Family is the basis of social control.

Question 18.
The universality of Family. Explain.
Or
Family is Universal. How?
Answer:
A family is a social group that is known as the first institution of human society. It is so because it has existed in every society and in every age in one or the other form. Every member of society is first a member of a family. Every person is related by psychological and emotional basis with the family in which he is born.

Question 19.
What is a Nuclear Family?
Or
Define Nuclear Family.
Answer:
According to Murdock, “The Nuclear family consists of types of a married man and woman with their offsprings, although in some cases one or more additional persons may reside with them.” In this way, a Nuclear family is a family in which the husband-wife and their unmarried children live. After marriage, children have their own different nuclear families. These are small in size.

Question 21.
Define Joint Family.
Answer:
According to Karve, “A Joint family is a group of persons who generally live under one roof, who eat food cooked in one kitchen, who hold property in common, participate in common worship and are related to one another as some particular type kindred.”

Question 22.
Give the main functions of the Family.
Answer:

1. It helps in perpetuating the race through procreation.
2. It helps in socializing the children and make them a responsible citizen.
3. It is the starting point of the division of labor.
4. It is the primary economic unit where family members share all economic

Question 23.
What is Polygamy?
Answer:
The practice or the custom of having more than one wife at the same time. This type of Marriage is restricted by the law of Hindu Marriage Act of 1955.

Question 24.
What is Polyandry?
Answer:
In this type of marriage, one female can marry many males at a time. It means one wife can have more than one husband at a time. It is of two types, fraternal and non-fraternal polyandry.

Question 25.
What is a Patriarchal Family?
Answer:
In this type of family whole power or authority of the family is in the hands of the father. The Male is in charge of the family. Everyone obeys the orders given by the father and the father has full control over its members. This type of family exists these days.

Question 26.
What is Matriarchal Family?
Answer:
In this type of family whole power or authority of the family is in the hands of the mother. In this family, children are under the control of the mother. Here, a son has no right over the property but daughters have rights over the property. This type of family exists in many tribes.

Question 27.
What is a Patrilineal family?
Answer:
In Patrilineal society, the inheritance of property passes on from father to son.

Question 28.
What is a Matrilineal family?
Answer:
In Matrilineal societies, the inheritance of property passes on from mother to daughter.

Question 29.
What is Kinship?
Answer:
According to Charles Winick, “Kinship system may include socially recognized relationship based on supposed as well as actual genealogical ties.” It means that the system of developed social relations made by-actual blood and made by marriage is known as Kinship.

Social Institutions Important Extra Questions Short Answer Type

Question 1.
What is Hierarchy?
Answer:
There was a definite hierarchy in the caste system which means society was divided into different segments on the basis of their higher or lower status. Brahmins were given a higher status in all parts of India. Kshatriyas were in second place and the third place was of Vaishyas. Fourth and the last place in the society was given to the lower castes. The social status of any person in society was determined on the basis of this hierarchy. Brahmins were given the highest respect.

Question 2.
Explain the Segmental division of society.
Answer:
Indian society was divided into many segments within the caste system but broadly it was divided into four segments. Brahmins belonged to the first segment, then Kashatriyas, then Vaishyas and at the end, the Shudras or the lower castes were there. The status, place, and functions of the members of every segment were pre-determined. Every caste had its own rituals, customs, traditions, values, etc. That is why the scope of relations of members of every caste was generally limited to its own social division. Every caste was the social unit in itself to which a person belonged.

Question 3.
Restrictions regarding castes. Explain.
Or
What was the restriction related to caste?
Answer:
There were some rules in every caste regarding restrictions on certain points like:

1. Every person had to adopt the occupation of his own caste.
2. He had to obey the rules about food and food-sharing.
3. He had to marry in his own caste.
4. Lower castes were not allowed to get an education and to enter the temples.
5. Lower castes were not allowed to touch the people of higher castes and to use the wells that belonged to the higher castes.

Question 4.
Restrictions on social relations. Explain.
Or
What were the restrictions regarding social relations?
Answer:
Society was divided into different castes in earlier times and was segregated into higher and lower castes. People of higher castes used to live inside the village and people of lower castes lived outside the village. They had to maintain distance from each other. Lower castes were not allowed to get an education with people of higher castes and were not allowed to enter the temples and to take water from the wells that belonged to the higher castes. Lower castes were not allowed to perform Upanayana Samskara.

Question 5.
What is meant by the term Untouchability?
Or
Caste gives rise to untouchability. How?
Or
How did the caste system give rise to untouchability?
Answer:
Caste System gave rise to untouchability. The so-called upper caste of the society considered the lower caste as inferior. They were kept away from society. They were not allowed to touch anyone. This restriction was known as untouchability. People of lower castes were supposed to live out of the village or the city. This created inequality in society.

Question 6.
Give differences between caste and class as a form of social stratification.
Answer:

Question 8.
Describe different functions of the caste system.
Answer:

1. Caste determines the occupation of a person as he gets it from the family.
2. Caste provides social security to a person.
3. Caste gives mental security to a person.
4. Caste maintains the purity of blood.
5. Caste provides political security.

Question 9.
What are the merits of the caste-system?
Answer:

1. Determination of Occupation: The caste system has always determined the occupation of every caste. Occupation of Brahmins, Kshatriyas, Vaishyas, and Lower Castes were fixed at the time of birth. It provided occupational security to everyone.
2. Making a religious base: The caste system has always given a religious base to society. Religious duties of every caste were fixed and religious rituals were to be performed by different caste.
3. To provide Social Stability: The caste system also provides social stability. Occupation, status, rules, etc. of every caste are generally fixed. A definite relationship was shared between all the castes with which stability came in the society.

Question 10.
What are the demerits of the caste system?
Answer:

1. Division of Society: Caste System divided society into many parts. It led to hatred for other castes which led to enmity among different castes.
2. The obstacle in individual development: The occupation of everyone is fixed in the caste system. One has to adopt occupation of his caste even if he has the ability to do better work. In this way, it is an obstacle in the way of an individual’s ability.
3. The obstacle in Social development: Caste System is also an obstacle in the way of social development. Everyone thinks about his own caste, own people. People hardly care about the development of society.
4. The obstacle in the way of Social reforms: Concepts of lower castes, untouchability, etc. came in front due to the caste system. It has kept lower castes at a lower place and hardly gave them the chance to come forward.

Question 11.
How has the caste system affected our society?
Answer:

1. Caste System has affected social mobility. A person cannot leave his place due to his occupation.
2. Caste System has created obstacles in the way of economic development of society and individuals because people of higher castes maintained a distance from lower castes.
3. Individual abilities are always suppressed by a caste system.
4. Enmity among different castes has increased due to the advent of casteism in politics.
5. Many a time it becomes a major factor in creating communal violence.

Question 12.
How has industrialization affected the caste system?
Answer:

1. In many large cities, people started to live with each other without any discrimination due to industrialization.
2. The industrialization has brought wealth to the society with which the class system has replaced the caste system.
3. The industrialization has encouraged international relations because of which people have left their ancestral places and started living in other countries.
4. Untouchability was discouraged and even the lower section of society was given certain rights.
5. People started getting educated and this changed they are approached completely.

Question 13.
Give four characteristics of a Family.
Answer:

1. Universal Group: Family is a social and universal group. It is also known as the primary institution in human history because it exists in every society and at all times. Every member of society is definitely a member of a family.
2. Small in Size: The size of the family is limited because only those persons are included in the family who either have taken birth in the family or who have marital relations.
3. Central position in Social Structure: Our society is based on the family and different associations are formed only through the family. That is why it has a central position in society.

Question 14.
What are the main functions of a family?
Answer:
(a) Basic functions:

1. Giving birth to children
2. Protection of members
3. Arrangement of food, house, and cloth
4. Protection of children.

(b) Social Functions:

1. Determines the status
2. Socialization
3. Social control
4. Preserving social heritage.

(c) Economic Functions:

1. Division of Labour
2. Arrangement of income
3. Protection of property.

(d) Giving religious education to its members.

(e) Political functions: Educating the members about their rights and duties.

Question 15.
Explain the types of the family on the basis of residence.
Answer:
Three types of families are there on the basis of residence:

1. Patrilocal Family: In this type of family, the wife goes to her husband’s house to live after marriage.
2. Matrilocal Family: When the husband, after marriage, goes to his wife’s house to live, then this type of family is known as the Matrilocal family.
3. Neolocal Family: In Neolocal family, husband-wife make their own new house instead of going to their parents’ house.

Question 16.
How many types of kinship are there?
Answer:
Two types of kinship are there:

1. Blood Relations: Relations based on blood are known as blood relatives like the relation of parents with their children. Relation of father, mother, brother, sister, etc. also comes in this category. These relations are based upon social sanctions and biological facts.
2. Consanguine Relations: These types of relations are made on the basis of marriage. Not only husband-wife come in this category but relatives of bride and bridegroom also come in it. For example, son-in-law, daughter-in-law, brother-in-law, sister-in-law, etc.

Question 17.
What is the importance of the kinship system?
Answer:

1. Kinship determines the authority in the family.
2. The kinship system is very helpful at the time of marriage because it tells us which family one belongs to.
3. Relatives are very much necessary for the completion of certain rituals of many religions of Indian society.
4. The person needs his relatives at the time of pleasure and sorrow.

Question 18.
What is Tribal society?
Answer:
A tribe is a group of people who lives away from our civilization on mountains, forests, and valleys traditionally. The society which exists in these tribes is known as tribal society. A tribal society is a classless society in which there is no division of any type. Most of the population of tribal society lives either on mountains or in forests. These societies are generally self-dependent, who have control over themselves and they can independently survive on then own. They live in communities, quite segregated from society. Tribal society is completely different from rural and urban society from the point of view of social structure and culture.

Question 19.
Explain the role of the caste system in the modern age.
Answer:
Today, we can clearly say that the caste system has been weakened to a great extent. Now, it hardly matters as to which group a person belongs to. The structural aspect of the caste system has also been weakened. Caste discrimination, religious disabilities, restrictions on social intercourse are no more a part of society. Now caste has no direct relation with one’s occupation.

Jajmani’s system of villages is also weakening. The majority groups have dominance in villages instead of caste groups. Yet some impact of the caste system can be seen at the time of marriage but its rigid aspect is no more seen. It has been greatly influenced by a number of processes like industrialization, urbanization, Sanskritization, westernization, etc.

Question 20.
What do you know about the concept of Tribal Identity’?
Answer:
The meaning of Tribal Identity is to preserve the social and cultural heritage of tribes so that the existence of their culture should not come to an end after they come in contact with other cultures. These days tribes are feeling that they are being marginalized and that is why the concept of tribal identity came in front.

In tribal societies, people are converting their religion, forgetting about their culture, and want to become modern because of the impact of Christian missionaries and the spread of education. It is harming their basic culture. That is why the sense of tribal identity came forward so that their specific culture, religion, language, etc. could be preserved.

Question 21.
What do you know about categories of kinship?
Answer:
Three types of categories of Kinship are there on the basis of closeness and these are:
1. Primary Relatives: Primary relatives like husband, wife, father, son, daughter, brother, sister, etc. are included in this category. We have a direct relationship with them. These are of 8 types.

2. Secondary Relatives: Those relatives with whom we are connected with the medium of our primary relatives are our secondary relatives like the brother of father- uncle, sister of mother-aunt, father of father-grandfather, etc. These are of 53 types.

3. Tertiary Kins: Tertiary kins are those relatives which are primary relatives of our secondary relatives. For example, son of the brother of father cousin, wife of mother’s brother, aunt (Miami), etc. These are of 151 types.

Question 25.
In what ways can changes in social structure lead to changes in family structure? (C.B.S.E. 2010)
Answer:
It is true that changes in social structure lead to changes in family structure. For example, the Indian social structure was based on rural values. During colonial rule, industries established in India and rural society started to change into an industrial society. Rural people started working in industries.

That is why they started to migrate towards urban areas by leaving rural areas. In this way, the joint families existing in rural areas started disintegrating. People started to migrate toward urban areas and they took their wives and children with them. It led to the disintegration of joint families and to the advent of nuclear families.

Social Institutions Important Extra Questions Essay Answer Type

Question 1.
What is Caste System? Give its definitions.
Answer:
Meaning of caste system. The word ‘caste’ has come out of the Portuguese word ‘Casta’ meaning birth. It is also closely related to the Latin word ‘Castus’ which means Pure race. Actually, the caste system is based upon birth. The caste in which the person takes birth, he has to live with that caste for his entire life. With the birth of the child, his ways of living his life are determined. It keeps some restrictions on its members which are necessary to be obeyed by the person.

This caste system is one of the main bases of the Indian social system and all the aspects of Hindu social life are affected by this system. Its impact is so powerful that it has affected every group and community living in India.

Word ‘caste’ has been taken from the Sanskrit word ‘Jana’ which means birth. The caste system prevailed in other societies also but its developed form was seen in India.

Definitions of a caste system

To know the better meaning of caste it is necessary for us to look at the definitions of the caste system given by different sociologists and psychologists.

1. According to Risley, “Caste is a collection of families or group of families bearing a common name, claiming a common descent from a mythical ancestor, human or divine, professing to follow the same hereditary calling and regarded by those who are competent to give an opinion as forming a single homogeneous community.”
2. According to Robert Bierstadt, “When a class system is a closed group on one or more than one issue then it is
3. According to Blunt, “A caste is an endogamous group or collection of endogamous groups, bearing a common name, membership of which is hereditary, imposing on its member’s certain restrictions in the matter of social intercourse, either following a common traditional occupation or claiming a common origin and generally regarded as forming a single homogeneous community.”

So, on the basis of the given definitions, we can say that caste is a group whose membership is based on birth. A person cannot leave his caste until he is not thrown out of his caste. A caste is a closed group. It means no one can marry out of his caste and there are certain rules and restrictions in it.

Question 2.
Give in brief the important characteristics of the caste system.
Answer:
1. Membership is based on birth: No one can determine his caste with his wish. Membership of caste is based on birth. Membership of a person was determined by his caste in which he took birth.

2. Restrictions on social relations: Society has been divided into different castes. One is from a higher caste and the other is from a lower caste. Sense of higher and lower exists in the caste system. People of higher castes lived in villages or cities and people of lower castes lived out of the city or village and they used to keep themselves away from higher castes.

3. Restrictions on eatables: There were some clear rules in the caste system which tell us that with which caste a person can keep his social relations and with whom he can share his food. Whole food was divided into two parts ‘Kachha Food’ and ‘Pakka Food’. Kachha food was made with water and Pakka food was made with oil.

The general rule was that a person can accept Kachha food only from the members of his own caste or from any Brahmin or from his Guru. That is why most of the castes accepted kaccha food given by brahmins but brahmins did not accept Kachha food from any other caste. Brahmins accepted Pakka food from specific castes only. Brahmins accepted Pakka food only from Kshatriya people and Vaishya people.

4. Restriction on occupation: According to the rules of the caste system, castes had their specific traditional occupation. A person had to adopt the occupation of his own caste even if the other occupations were more profitable. A man had no choice except to adopt his caste’s occupation. But some occupations were free to be adopted by anyone like trade, agriculture, the job in the military, etc. Even many castes were free to adopt any occupation but many castes had to practice their traditional functions like carpenter, blacksmith, barber, potter, etc.

5. Restrictions on marriage: The caste system was again divided and different castes were divided into sub-castes. These sub-castes restricted its members to marry out of its group. Endogamy is an important feature of the caste system. It means to marry in the group. Yet in some specific conditions, there were some restrictions. But, generally, they had to marry in their own caste. If anyone violated this rule then he was generally thrown out of his caste and was restricted to enter any other caste.

6. Segmental division of society: Hindu society was divided into many parts by caste system and the status, place, and function of every part were determined by it. That is why members of a particular conscious of being the members of a group. Because of this segmental division of society, the area of interaction for a person is generally restricted to his own caste. Panchayats gave punishments to the person who violated the rules of caste. Different castes had different traditions and ways of living.

7. Endogamy: There were strict restrictions related to marriage. One was not allowed to marry out of his caste but he has to marry in his own sub-caste. If anyone violated this rule then he was generally thrown out of his caste. Anulom marriage was also allowed to a certain extent. That is why boys of higher caste used to marry girls of a lower caste. Endogamy was the main basis of the caste system.

Question 3.
Explain the traditional theory of the origin of the caste system.
Answer:
1. Traditional Theory. Traditional theory related to the origin of the caste system is written in Hindu religious texts. The most ancient explanation in Vedic literature about the caste system is based upon one mantra of ‘Purush Sakta’ of ‘Rigveda’. According to this mantra, all the four varnas had originated from the different parts of the body of Brahma. Brahmins were originated from the mouth of Brahma, Kshatriyas from arms, Vaishyas from legs and Lower Castes had originated from the feet of Brahma.

In Manusmriti, Manu gave the functions of all four varnas. Brahmin will give education because he came from mouth, Kshatriya will use weapons and will protect the people because he came from arms. Vaishya will do the work of trade, agriculture, and rearing of animals. In the end, lower castes will serve the upper three Varnas.

In ‘Mahabharata’ it is also written that how different castes and sub-castes originated. In the Vedic age, there was no existence of Pratiloma marriage, only Anuloma marriages were there. Because Pratiloma marriage was not sanctioned by society. That is why the children produced by this marriage were not given any varna and they were differentiated from Hindu society. Later on, they became lower castes and sub-castes.

But the traditional theory has been criticized because the explanation of the varna System is there in this theory but there is no name of the caste system in it and caste and varna both are different from each other. Critics also disagree with the fact that all the castes and sub¬castes were originated due to the Anuloma and Pratiloma type of marriage. While criticizing Manu, many scholars say that the division of castes had not originated due to the varna system. If it could have happened then the number of sub-castes would have been lesser than that of main castes but it is actually opposite to it.

Question 4.
Explain the social theory of the origin of the caste system.
Answer:
Racial Theory. Many scholars have given the racial theory about the origin of the caste system. According to Risley, Maclver, Weber, Crober, etc. racial element is very important in the origin of the caste system. Ghurye, Dutt and Majumdar also supported it. According to Risley, three factors were responsible for the origin of the caste system-

1. Racial exchange
2. Interrelation due to exchange, and
3. Sense of class difference.

The caste system in India was started after the arrival of the Indo-Aryan people. The society of this race was divided into four parts and they also applied this concept to India. Firstly, Aryans defeated the original inhabitants of India, and then they established one-sided marital relations with them because females among the Aryans were less in numbers. From here the custom of Anuloma marriage was started. Pratiloma marriage was not given sanction because Aryans refused to marry their daughters with Indian people. When the needs of Aryans fulfilled then they stopped the custom of Anuloma marriage. Racial mixture increased due to Anuloma marriage and different castes came into being.

According to Ghurye, Aryan people had given themselves higher status than the original inhabitants of India. They started the policy of living away from original inhabitants to maintain racial purity. They kept themselves in higher three varnas and had given the status of a slave to the original people of India. With the passage of time society was divided into groups of higher or lower status.

Majumdar was of the view that cultural conflict and racial exchange led to the origin of the groups of higher and lower status in India. Many reasons were there of racial mixtures, like less number of females in India, developed Dravidian culture, their matrilineal system, worship of gods and goddesses, wish to live life at one place, different customs, etc. After the conquest of the Aryan people over the Dravidian people, mutual exchange and cultural conflict were started among them. That is why many social groups came into being which became endogamous. From here the status of every group or caste was determined according to racial purity and on the basis of living away from other groups.

The racial theory has been criticized because it has explained the restrictions of marital relations but has not explained the rules of food and food sharing. Muslims and Christians are unable to take the form of a caste. Even they have cultural differences.

Question 5.
Explain the geographical and occupational theory of the origin of the caste system.
Answer:
Geographical Theory: Gilbert gave the geographical theory about the origin of the caste system. According to him, the caste system came into being due to the living of different groups in different parts of the country. This view is also expressed in Tamil Literature. This view can be explained on the basis of many examples. For example, brahmins living near the bank of Saraswati river were known as ‘Sarswati Brahmins’, and people living in Kannauj were known as Kannaujias. In this way, the names of many other castes were kept on the basis of their living place. But this theory has been criticized by most scholars because many castes exist in one geographical area and the names of all these castes are not related to that geographical area.

Occupational Theory: Nesfield and Dahlman gave the occupational theory about the origin of the caste system. According to Nesfield, different castes were originated on the basis of different occupations and he completely disagrees with racial factors. The racial mixture was at its advanced level even before the origin of the caste system. According to him, the caste system has not been originated due to religion because religion cannot give that fundamentalist base which is necessary for the caste system. In this way, according to Nesfield, the only occupation is responsible for the origin of the caste system.

According to Dahlman, earlier Indian Society was divided into three parts-Priests, King or Ruler, and Bourgouisee. Occupations of all three classes were related to religious, political, and economic activities. Then, with the passage of time, these groups were divided into smaller groups on the basis of occupation and relations. Earlier, they had taken the form of business enterprises and then were changed into business federals. Later on, these federals were developed into castes.

This theory has also been criticized: It is not correct to tell the direct relation between religion and caste. This theory is away from racial theory because there is some racial difference between higher and lower groups. With this, if the caste system was originated from business enterprises then why it originated only in India and not in any other country. This theory cannot provide answers to these questions.

Question 6.
Give in brief the evolutionary and religious theory of the origin of the caste system.
Answer:
Evolutionary Theory: This theory was given by Denzil Ibbetson. According to him, the caste system was not originated on the basis of four varnas but was originated by the organizations which were formed on an economic basis. According to him, earlier people were living like wanderers and there was no existence of a caste system. Blood relations were there among people and there was no feeling of higher or lower in them. But slowly and slowly and by living with each other economic development was started and people started to do agricultural work.

With the passage of time economic life became complex and a need was felt for the division of labor. It became the duty of the king to make such a policy that could be based on the division of labor and occupational differences. With this many new classes came into being. Community feeling was developed while living with each other. With time these groups had made their unions secure their interests. Every union had adopted the policy of endogamy to save its occupational secrets. In this way, due to endogamy, the caste system came into being. Slowly and slowly these groups had made their place in the social hierarchy.

This theory has also been criticized because unions on the basis of occupation are these in all societies. Then why the caste system was developed in India. The economic factors could be taken as one of the factors of origin but cannot be taken as the only factor.

Religious Theory: This theory was given by Hokart and Senart. According to Hobart, the origin of the caste system and division of Indian society took place due to religious customs and theories. In ancient Indian society, religion was very important and animals were also sacrificed to gods. In the custom of sacrifice, chanting of mantras and worship was also involved in which many persons were required. Slowly and slowly people, who were doing religious work started segregating. According to Hobart, the occupation of every caste goes on from generation to generation. The main base of occupation was not economic but was religious.

According to Senart, restrictions related to food came due to religious factors, and people were divided into castes and sub-castes. But some sociologists are of the view that the caste system is not a religious institution but is a social institution. That is why this theory is not correct. The caste system is very complex and the theories related to its origin are diverse.

Question 7.
Give in brief the Mana theory of the origin of the caste system.
Answer:
Mana Theory: Hutton was of the view that the elements of the caste system were there in India even before the arrival of the Aryans in India. When Aryans came to India then they had strengthened these elements to secure their interests. Social division in India was not much clear before them but the Aryans had differentiated it and kept themselves at the top of the system. According to Hutton, this was at an early stage.

In ancient times, Mana was considered the invisible divine force that exists in every person and can move from one person to another just by touching each other. Tribal people believed that the difference among humans was because of Mana power. People stay away from foreigners because they are afraid of Mana. They did not even touch those people, who they considered evil. In this way, tribes keep some restrictions on their members on some things which are known as Taboo.

According to Hutton, even Hindu, Muslim, Parsis, and Buddhist people also believed in Mana and Taboo. Discriminations related to Mana and Taboo were there even before the Aryans came to India. That is why restrictions among different groups related to marriage, food, occupation, etc. were there. When the caste system was started then it imposed many restrictions on its members.

This theory has also been criticized by scholars. They say that yet Mana and Taboo also exist in tribes of other countries of the world but we cannot find a caste system anywhere else. With this, the culture of tribes never represents the whole Indian culture.

Question 8.
What are the changes coming in the Caste System? Write in detail.
Answer:
1. End to discrimination and untouchability: In 1955, the Indian government passed the law ‘Untouchability Offence Act’ and tried to eradicate untouchability: Now if anyone says ‘Untouchable’ to any person of lower caste then he will be considered a criminal. The government has adopted the policy of reservation in government institutions to uplift the lower castes. On the basis of this policy, special provisions are given to lower caste people. In modern times, a person of every caste is doing every type of work. The government gives scholarships to the people of backward classes so that they should be able to get any status in society with some hard work. In this way, the discrimination on the basis of untouchability has been reduced to a great extent.

2. Change in the caste hierarchy: The hierarchy which was determined by the caste system in Indian society has been changed completely. Lower castes have been uplifted in society by a number of processes like urbanization, industrialization, Sanskritisation, etc. In modern times, no caste is considered inferior to the other castes. Even people of higher castes are ready to marry in the lower castes. In this way, social mobility came into being in Indian society and now we hardly find the hierarchy of castes anywhere.

3. Changes in the restrictions of food and drink: During ancient times, the feeding of the caste was determined by the caste system. Food was divided into two parts and feeding relations of a caste were pre-determined. But in modern times it was very difficult to adopt these restrictions. When people of different castes came in contact with each other in cities then these restrictions came to an end slowly. Cooks in hotels belong to different castes and people eat in hotels by sitting with each other and without asking each other’s caste. In cities, people work with each other and that is why they started eating with each other. In this way, a number of changes came in the feeding restrictions of a caste.

4. Decline in the status of Brahmins: Changes in the caste system were started even under the rule of the British. Firstly, the British government treated all the people of different castes equally. According to them, no one is brahmin or Kshatriya but all of them are Indians. They started to give western education to Indian people instead of religious education. Everyone was free to get an education in various educational institutions. In this way, there was no question of the superiority of brahmins because humans started to attain social status according to their ability and not on the basis of their caste. Lower castes raised their status by progressing economically.

5. Freedom in the selection of occupation. In ancient Indian society, the occupation of a person was determined to right after his birth and it was according to his caste. A person had to adopt the occupation of his caste, even against his wish. He was not allowed to adopt any other occupation except his pre-determined profession. But because of many reasons, society started giving importance to personal ability. Now humans are free to adopt the occupation of their choice. It means that person can choose the occupation according to his ability. Even the concept of profit has been linked with this. No occupation is higher or lower in his eyes. Now, he chooses the occupation in which he sees more profit. In this way, the freedom, which a person has got in a selection of occupation, has brought changes in the caste system.

6. Change in status of the woman. During the prevalence of the caste system, the woman was spending her life only by living in the four walls of the house. She was neither free to get an education nor she was free to speak on any subject. In this way, she had to spend her life in a suppressed way. But in modern times, she has got freedom in all sectors of life and she is now no more under the control of males. Now she is economically self-dependent. The status of females has been completely changed. People feel happy in the case of the birth of a baby girl. Now, there is no difference between a boy or girl child. Even the government has given reservations to females in different sectors. Now every female is free to marry anywhere she wishes.

Question 9.
What is a tribe? Give its definitions.
Answer:
A group of people who lives away from our civilization, on mountains, forests, valleys, etc. is known as Tribe. They have been given the name of Scheduled Tribes in the Indian Constitution. A tribal society is a classless society. There is no existence of any type of stratification in these societies. The tribe was considered a very important social group in ancient societies. Most of the population of tribal society lived either on mountains or in forests. They lived almost in every part of our country.

These societies are generally self-dependent which are controlled by themselves and are away from any type of control. Tribal societies are very much different from the structure and culture of rural and urban societies. We can divide them into three categories and these are:

1. hunters, food gatherers, and fish catchers,
2. people engaged in shifting agriculture, and
3. people engaged in the permanent type of agriculture.

They are very much different from our culture, civilization, and society.

Definitions of a tribe
1. According to Imperial Gazetteer of India, “A Tribe is a collection of families bearing a common name, speaking a common dialect, occupying or professing to occupy a common territory and is not usually endogamous, though originally it might have been so.”

2. According to D.N. Majumdar, “A tribe is a collection of families or group of families bearing a common name, members of which occupy the same territory, speak the same language and observe certain taboos regarding marriage, profession or occupation and have developed a well-assessed system of reciprocity and mutuality of obligation.”

3. According to Gillin and Gillin, “Any collection of preliterate local groups which occupies a common general territory, speaks a common language and practices a common culture is a tribe.”

In this way on the basis of the given definitions, we can say that the tribes exist in a limited geographical area and live in the form of small groups. Different tribes are very much different and independent from each other on the basis of some of their aspects like social structure, language, culture, etc. Every tribe has its own language, culture, traditions, eating habits, etc. They have a sense of unity among themselves because they live with each other in a definite geographical area. It is the collection of groups of many families that were endogamous long ago. These days, these tribal people have been given protection by the Indian Constitution for their development in the form of many facilities like reservation and gradually, they are joining the mainstream.

Question 10.
Explain in brief the different characteristics of the tribe.
Answer:
A Tribe has many characteristics which are given below:-
1. Collection of families: A tribe is a group of many families that has common descent. They produce things to fulfill the needs of the tribe. They never accumulate things and do not have any property. These families have a sense of unity among themselves.

2. Common geographical territory: People of a tribe living in a common and definite geographical territory. They are very much different and live away from other parts of society due to this common and definite geographical territory. That is why they are out of the reach of the rest of society. Because they have their own different culture and they never like the interference of anyone in their tribe, they do not keep any type of relations with the rest of the society. They have their own world. They have the community feeling because they five in common territory.

3. Common Language and Common Name: Every tribe has its own different language because of which they are different from each other. A number of tribal languages, in our country, exist according to the number of tribes. Every tribe also has its different name and it is known by that name.

4. Segmentary Society: Every tribal society is different from other societies on many bases like eating habits, languages, geographical area, etc. They are different from each other on many bases and never like to interfere in each other’s matters. They do not discriminate against anyone and that is why they are known as a segmentary society.

5. Common Culture: Every tribe has its different ways of living, religion, language, taboos, etc. But these are the same in one tribe. In the same way, because of these differences, all the humans in one tribe has the same culture.

6. Economic Structure: Every tribe has its own land which practices shifting agriculture on it. They just want to fulfill their needs and that is why their production is also limited. They never accumulate things because of which they do not have any sense of property. That is why there is no class in tribal society. Every member of a tribe has equal rights on all the things and no one is inferior or superior in these societies.

7. Mutual Cooperation: Every member of a tribe gives full cooperation to other members of society so that all the needs of the tribes could be fulfilled. It is the duty of the headman of every tribe to keep the respect of its tribe. Every member of the tribe has to obey the orders of the headman and they give respect to their headman.

Question 11.
Explain in brief the political organization of North Eastern tribes.
Answer:
Political Organization of North Eastern Tribes. We can include the states of Tripura. Mizoram, Manipur, Meghalaya, Nagaland, Assam, Arunachal Pradesh, etc. in North-Eastern tribes. The main tribes of these states are Naga, Mizo, Apatani, Lushai, Jantiya, Garo, Khasi, etc.

Tribes of Assam have democratic political organizations. Most of these tribes have given sanction to the collective ownership of land and personal right over the land has also been given the sanction. People of one village are free to do agriculture anywhere. Yet, different families of the village have different economic conditions but no strict social stratification has ever emerged due to this.

Most of these tribes are divided into exogamous clans, the rest of the tribes live without the clan system in communities of villages. These different clans work under different chieftains. In the Khasi tribe, the post of chieftain after his death is given to the eldest son of his eldest sister. If no male is there then the eldest daughter of the eldest sister is given the post of the chieftain. Khasi tribe was divided into 25 Khasi states in ancient times which were independent of each other.

Administration in these tribes was democratic which had one of its head. Chieftain in Khasi tribe neither can impose any tax on the people, nor he can make any policy independently and he does not have any right related to forest or land. Decisions were taken according to public opinion. They call the council of all the adults of the tribe and people had to participate in it. Yet, the chieftain had all the rights in the Lushai tribe but even here it was not possible for him to go against the opinion of the people. The chieftain and his post both were ancestral but the administration was generally democratic.

Political administration in the Garo tribe is being run on democratic lines. There is no chief in the Garo tribe, just one headman is there who is the head of the tribe only by name. Most of these important decisions of the tribe are taken by the council or administration of the village which has the elders of the families as its members. A lot of diversity can be seen in the political administration of the Naga tribe. Some Naga tribes are being run on the autocratic will of the head but many Naga tribes have the democratic association of the village in which the headman has very few rights. Most of the Naga tribes are considered violent but these ideas are not correct.

Naga tribes can be seen on the battlefield but it should be seen from the social-historical point of view. Most people think that it is not possible to establish a consistent administration in this type of violent condition where every person has their own rule. But even in these conditions, one flexible political organization can be seen in these tribes. Headman in the Konyak tribe has many powers and rights.

Question 12.
Explain briefly the political organization of tribes of central India.
Answer:
Central Indian Tribes. Most of the tribes of India live in the areas of Madhya Pradesh, Bihar, and Odisha. Some elements of political organizations in these tribes are generally the same on the basis of the unity of clans. One association of elders of the village is there for the help of the headman which takes care of the administration of the village. Most of the decisions in tribes are taken either with consensus or with public opinion and it is not possible for the head of the tribe to go against this decision.

The majority of the people of this area belong to Bhil, Gond, and Oraon tribes. Oraon people have formed one organization ‘PARHA’ which is the organization of many neighboring villages that has one central unit called ‘PARHA PANCH’. Every oration para has many villages. Out of these villages, one village is known as Raha (king), the second is known as Diwan, the third is known as Panri (clerk of the king,) and the fourth one is known as Kotwal village. Other villages do not have much authority and they are known as subjects of the king. King village is known as the head village of Partha. Every village has its own flag and badge which any other village cannot have. The main function of the paratha council is to solve the problems between different villages.

The lowest political authority among Santhal people is with the head of the village who is known as Manjhi. Manjhi and other elders of the village meet each other and discuss the matters of the society. The Head of the village gets some gifts at the time of his marriage. He also possesses some land without rent. Manjhi also has civil and moral authority. He is assisted by the deputy’s head for the day to day functions.

The Head of the village among Munda people is also known as ‘MUNDA’ but the religious head is known as ‘PAHAN’. 12 villages make one Patti or Parha whose head is known as ‘MANKT. Heads of villages form one group in which Manki is the most powerful. The basic political unit among the Gond people in the village. The Head of the village is known as either Patel or Manda. Some elders of the village help him in doing the functions of the village. These people exist in the Bastar district of Bihar. Yet the Hindu king of Baster does not have any domination over them but still, he is known as the spiritual head of all the Gond groups.

Question 13.
Discuss the political organization of South Indian tribes.
Answer:
South Indian Tribes. This tribal belt is the most technically and financially backward tribes. Most of the tribes of this village live in small groups. They are either dispersed in forests or are working for the farmers. Generally, these people live their fife according to their wish and they like to live away from interference and contact with any external group.

Tribes of the Andaman and Nicobar islands still are living in the hunting and food gathering stage of human development. Many of these tribes are wanderer groups but still, they wander in one definite geographical area. Even local groups have 5-10 families and every group has its own head. These local groups are living and working differently. They meet with each other temporarily at the time of hunting or at the time of any occasion.

Some other wanderer tribal groups do not have any post of the head. Heads of the family sit at one place if any problem arises and try to find the solution to that problem. There is no headman in Alios and Arandar people. When elders of the group meet each other then the discussion on any matter takes place and everyone has to accept their decision. Whoever does not like their decision, generally leaves the tribe. The group then becomes part of the other groups. The institution of Headman in the Kadar tribe has come to an end.

The post of the headman in the Adyar tribe of Kerala is ancestral. If the son is not good enough for the post then this post is given to the nephew. Headship is a special post but he is not an autocratic ruler. He only presides over the meetings of elders in which the community matters are generally discussed.

Question 14.
What is meant by Family? Explain its definitions.
Answer:
A family is an important group for social structure. The word family has been taken from the word ‘Fabulous’ which is a Roman word. A family is a social institution in which a husband and wife are socially entitled to procreate and bring up their children. It is a social set up in which people with blood relations live together. After the upbringing of the child, he becomes a citizen of society. In simple words, the meaning of family is the group of husband, wife and their children. But from a sociological point of view, its meaning is not only a collection of people but is by the system of their mutual relationship and its main objectives are to produce children, their upbringing, their socialization, etc.

Definitions
Different sociologists have given different views about the family and some of these definitions are given below-

1.  According to Maclver, “Family is a group defined by sex relationship sufficiently precise and enduring to provide for the procreation and upbringing of children.”
2. According to G.P. Murdock, “The family is a social group characterized by common residence, economic cooperation and reproduction. It included adults of both sexes, at least two of whom maintained a socially approved sexual relationship and one or more children, own or adopted, of the sexually cohabitating adults.”
3. According to H.M. Johnson, “Family is a group of two or more individuals related by blood, marriage or adoption and residing together, all such persons are considered as members of one family.”

Yet many differences are there in the definitions given by different sociologists but on one thing their views are the same that a family is a group in which a relationship of male and female are accepted by the society and it is a universal group. Its members are personally connected with each other in the process of reproduction. In short, we can say that mother, father and their children are included in the family and it is developed in every society.

Question 15.
Discuss in brief the important characteristics of the family.
Answer:
1. Family is a universal group: A family is a social group. It is also known as the first institution in human history because it exists in every society and at all times. Every member of society is definitely a member of a family. It is so because wherever we take birth, we are related to those members of the group.

2. Emotional base: Family is the base of the human society which is based on basic instincts of humans like to produce the children, relations of husband and wife, maintenance of descent, protection of property, etc., and emotions are also included in this. Feelings of cooperation, love, sympathy also are developed in this and this is necessary for the progress and development of society.

3. Formative Influence: A family is an important unit in a social structure. Family exerts a formative influence on the development of the personality of the child. Family is an institution in which a child gets knowledge about social behavior. All-around development of the man is possible only in the family. Whatever a child observes in the family tries to learn and imitate that thing.

4. Small in size: The size of the family is limited because only those persons are included in the family who either take birth in the family or who have marital relations. In ancient times when society was based on agriculture then joint families were there in which father-mother, grandfather-grandmother, uncle, aunt, etc. were living collectively. Today, nuclear families are coming up especially in big towns and cities where both the parents earn bread for the family. Nuclear or small families are found where only unmanned children live with their parents.

5. Central position in the social structure: Our society is based on the family and different associations are formed only from the family. That is why it has a central position in society. In earlier societies, social organization was based upon the family. Social progress was also based upon this. Most of the functions of the family have been taken by other institutions but still a number of functions are there which only family can do for the society.

6. Responsibility of the members: Every member of the society is connected with other members of the society and every member of the family takes each other’s responsibilities. Members do not have feelings of selfishness amongst themselves. In fact, whatever they do they do it for the family’s development. Even the sense of sacrifice develops only in the family. We cannot find personal relations in any other institution except family. If anyone becomes ill in the family then other members of the family take care of that person. It increases the feeling of cooperation among them. According to Maclver, “In difficult times, people work for the family, die while fighting but the family does all these things for the whole life.”

Question 16.
Explain different types of families on different bases.
Answer:
1. Types of the family on the basis of Marriage-It is of two types:
1.Monogamous Family-In this type of family, one male marries one female, and the family on this type of base is known as a Monogamous family. In the modern age, this type of family is known as the right type of family.

2. Polygamous Family-When one male marries more than one female or one female marries more than one male, then, this type of family is known as a polygamous family. It is further of two types:

1. Polyandrous Family-When one female marries more than one male then it is known as polyandrous marriage. The main feature of this type of family is that one female has many husbands. It is again of two types. The first type is a Fraternal polyandrous family in which all the husbands are brothers. The second type is a non-fraternal polyandrous family in which the husbands are not connected.
2. Polygamous Family-When a male marries more than one female then it is known as a polygamous family. In this type of family, one male has many wives. For example, Muslims are permitted to keep four wives. Hindu kings, in ancient times, had many wives. But according to the Hindu Marriage Act of 1955, Hindus are not permitted to keep more than one wife. Many tribes in India are still there who have this type of family-like Nagas, Gonds, etc.

2. Family on the basis of Numbers-Family on the basis of numbers is of three
types:

1. Nuclear Family-Nuclear family is a very small family in which the husband, wife, and their unmarried children live. Other relations are not included in the nuclear family. This type of family exists in modern societies because people are doing jobs in cities. Children make their own nuclear family after their marriage.
2. Joint Family-There are many members in this type of family. Grandfather, grandmother, elder uncle-aunt, younger uncle-aunt, brothers, sisters are included in this type of family. Generally, this type of family exists in the villages.
3. Extended Family-This type of family is generally made only after and with the help of a joint family. The advanced stage of joint family is known as extended family. In this all the brothers, their married children and even their grandchildren five together. This type of family is not possible in modern societies. This type of family was seen during the earlier time when the whole family was engaged in the same occupation but today it is hardly seen.

3. Family on the basis of Nomenclature-It is further of four types:

1. Patrilineal Family-In Patrilineal family descent is of the father which generally exists in today’s life. It means that the son gets the nomenclature of the father and the nomenclature of the father is of great importance.
2. Matrilineal Family-This type of family runs in the name of the mother. It means that the child gets the nomenclature of the mother. This type of family exists in many tribes of India.
3. Bilinear Family-In this type of family descent of both mother and father goes side by side. It means that the child gets the nomenclature of both mother and father.
4. Non-Unilinear Family-In this type of family, the nomenclature is determined on the basis of nearest relative. It is known as the non-unilinear family.

4. Family on the basis of types of relatives-This type of family is of two types:

1. Consanguine Family-In this type of family, blood relations are at the highest place and there are no sexual relations in it. Husband and wife are also there in this type of family but they are not the base of this family. Membership of this type of family can be attained only on the basis of birth. This type of family never comes to an end even after divorce and they are permanent.
2. Conjugal Family-Husband, wife, and their unmarried children are here in this type of family. In this, husband-wife and their relatives are included. This type of family can be broken after the death of either husband or wife or both.

5. Family on the basis of Residence-This type of family is of three types:

1. Patrilocal Family-In this type of family, the bride leaves her father’s house and goes to the house of her husband to live and establish the family. We can see this type of family very often.
2. Matrilocal Family-This type of family is definitely opposite to the Patrilocal family in which a girl never leaves her father’s house after marriage but it lives there only. In this, her husband leaves his father’s house and goes to the house of his wife to live. It is known as the Matrilocal family. We can find this type of family in Garo and Khasi tribes.
3. Neolocal Family-This type of family is different from the other two types. Husband and wife are not living at their father’s house but they make a new house after their marriage and that is why it is known as the Neolocal family. We can find this type of family in the modern age.

6. Family on the basis of Authority-This type of family is of two types:

1. Patriarchal Family-In this type of family whole power is in the hands of males. The Head of the family is male. Descent also depends upon the father. After marriage wife goes to the husband’s house and the property is distributed among the boys of the family. The eldest son of the family gets the most respect. His respect in the home is equal to the respect of the father. In every type of necessary family matters, male’s interference is necessary. It looks at the ancient Hindu society then, according to the Vedic books male was just like a God for the female. The eldest son gets all the rights of the family after the death of his father.
2. Matriarchal Family-In this type of family, the female is dominant in the family, the whole ownership of the property of the family is in the hands of the female. Females of the family have the right over the property. After marriage husband goes to the house of the wife to live. The property was divided among the females of the family. The descent was also moved from females.

Question 17.
What are the Social Functions of the Family?
Answer:
1. Socialization: The child learns ways of living in society only in family and becomes a good citizen. With the help of the family, the child establishes social contacts. The child takes birth in the family and, firstly, he comes in contact with his parents because they fulfill his basic needs. The person gets ascribed status from the family. Qualities like cooperation, love, sacrifice, disciplines develop in a person only in the family. If the child gets proper education in the family then good citizens will come forward in society. He comes to know about every type of behavior only while living in the family.

2. Protection and transmission of culture: Family protects our culture and this culture is our social heritage. Every family understands the responsibilities of giving good habits and values to the next generation, traditions, customs, rituals to the person. The child learns everything with an unconscious mind because he automatically does that thing which he observes in the family. Every family has its own customs on which it is based. The family tells the child to learn everything consciously so that the child should move according to the traditions of the family. In this way on the basis of this continuity, the family protects and carries forward their culture and values to the next generation.

3. Social control: Family is an important agency of social control because it is the first agency in which the child is controlled so that the bad habits should not be formed in him. For example, parents control him not to tell a lie, not to misbehave with elders so that he should follow the rules of the family. Every person wants to do that type of work which helps in increasing the prestige of his family in the society. The family controls every type of behavior and actions of its members. In this way the child becomes disciplined. If the child does not behave in a proper way with members of the family then he will definitely misbehave with other members of the society. In this way, the family controls its members.

4. To provide status: In the family, a child comes to know about his status and role. In ancient societies, the child was respected according to the family in which he was born. For example, the child born in a rich family, King’s house, Landlord’s house get social status automatically. Yet, today, man gets status according to his ability but still, the child has to work according to the family in which he is born.

5. Provide occupation: In ancient societies, the child had to adopt the occupation of the family in which he was born. In the caste system, a child born in a Brahmin family adopts the occupation of the brahmins. According to ancient history, division of occupation was based on caste, and caste was related to the birth of the child. Today, a person can adopt the occupation according to his ability.

6. Help in marriage: This function was also done by the family in ancient societies. These days, man establishes marital relations according to his wish. But still, it is necessary that the family members should be present at the time of marriage. Even today it is the duty of the family to marry their children.

Question 18.
What are the changes that are coming in the institution of the family? Explain in detail.
Or
Explain the changes which are coming in the structure and functions of the family.
Answer:
1. Change in educational functions: With the change in society, changes are also coming in the functions of all the institutions. The functions of the family have been changed completely. In ancient times, a child was educated in the family, and education was generally related to the traditional occupation of the family. It was so because the joint family system was there and whatever professions the father was into, the child had to adopt the same occupation.

Under the guidance of the father-child got his training. But slowly and slowly, with modernization, children began to go to educational institutions to get an education and because of this, they started to move away from the traditional occupation of the family. He started adopting other occupations. In this way, the traditional function of the family changed and has gone into the hands of educational institutions and other changes that took place in society.

2. Change in the economic functions: During earlier times family was the center of economic activities. Every work-related to earning was done by the family. In this way, all the means of living were available to the family members. But with the advent of industrialization, all those functions of production were taken away by the big industries like, now cloth is made in textile mills. In this way, the economic functions of the family have been taken by industries. So the responsibility of the family of economic production has been taken away by other institutions.

3. Change in religious functions: During earlier times, one of the main functions of the family was to give religious education to its members. Elders of the family taught its members about religion and morality. But with the advent of new scientific inventions and discoveries, the outlook of the people changed from a religious to scientific point of view.

During earlier societies, religion was of utmost importance but today, religion is not given importance when it comes to societal issues. In earlier times people used to spend a lot of time in religious functions and religious rituals were performed for a number of days. Even now people believe in religion and customs but they can hardly spare time for them. They celebrate festivals and other important days together.

4. Change in social functions: Social functions of the family have been reduced. During earlier times, the husband was just like a God for his wife. It was the duty of the husband to keep his wife happy. The function of the family was the upbringing of children. But now, due to more number of nuclear families in cities and towns, only parents bring up their children.

5. Decreasing family unity. In earlier times joint families were there but today, unity and the system of joint family has come to an end. Everyone has their own ideals. No one tolerates anyone’s interference. They are living with each other, eating, drinking with each other but hardly bother about them. Clearly, they lack unity.

Question 19.
What is Joint Family? Give its definitions.
Answer:
The main feature of ancient Indian society was the joint family system. The meaning of joint family is that husband, wife, children, grandparents all should live in one house. In these families property is common and every member of the family has shared in it. The system of the Indian family is just like the socialist community. The joint family system is based upon the authority of the father. Different scholars have different views about the meaning of joint family and these are given below:
1. According to Karve, “A joint family is a group of persons who generally live under one roof, who eat and cook at one hearth, who hold property in common and who participate in common worship and are related to each other as some particular type of kindred.”

2. According to I.P. Desai, “We call that household a joint family which has greater generation depth than the nuclear family and the members of which are related to one another by property, income and mutual rights and obligations.”

3. According to Kingsley Davis, “The joint family consists of males having common male ancestor, females offspring not yet married and women brought into the group by marriage. All of these persons might live in a common household or in several households near to one another. In any case, so long as the joint family holds together, its members are expected to contribute to the support of the whole and to receive from it a share of the total product.”

From these definitions, it is clear that a joint family is a cooperative system of close relations based on the common organization in which a mixture of common property and common rights is there. In this family, all the persons of common ancestors are included. In these families, members of a minimum of three generations are living. Cultural continuity exists in them and every person obeys his duty properly.

Question 20.
Discuss in brief the major characteristics of a joint family.
Answer:

1. Large in Size-In joint family, members of many generations five who are related with the descent of the father. That is why it is large in size.
2. Feeling of Cooperation-In this system of family, all the members of the family help each other. They all cooperate and work together. In fact, they work for a common cause.
3. Common Property-Ownership of the property is equal for all the members and the head of the family takes care of it.
4. Common Residence-All the members of the joint family live under one roof. Their kitchen is also one where they take food jointly by sitting with each other.
5. A Productive Unit-In this type of family, all the members of the family jointly work together and whatever they earn, share with each other.
6. Common Religion-All the members of the joint family believe in one religion. They take part in all the religious activities of the family jointly.
7. Common Kitchen-In joint family all the members use one kitchen. That’s why they celebrate all the religious activities jointly. Common kitchen enhances love in them.
8. Stability-Joint family is more stable as compared to other types of family. Members of joint family are more in number and that is why earners are more in number. So because of this, all the needs of the members of the family are generally fulfilled. If anyone is sick in the family and is unable to do work even then they can five properly. That is why more stability is there in this type of family and culture is transmitted from one generation to another.
9. Rights-In a joint family, the head of the family has a complete right over the members of the family. Head is of great importance in the family and all the other members of the family respect him. Every member has to obey his orders. The eldest member of the family is the head and he takes responsibility for the functions of the family. It helps in maintaining discipline in the family.

Question 21.
What are the merits of a Joint Family?
Answer:
1. Cooperation-Relations between the members of the joint family are of cooperation and mutual understanding. Every member takes care of each other’s needs. They lack a sense of selfishness. In fact, they have a sense of sacrifice. One member is ready to do anything for another.

2. Preservation of Culture-In joint family, members of many generations live with each other. That is why every person has to obey the rules made by the family. These rules and ideas are taken forward from one generation to another.

3. Social Control-In joint family all the members of the family are controlled by the head of the family. Every person has to obey the orders given by elders. That is why a child learns to respect others in the family. Children never try to do anything without the advice of elders.

4. Religious Functions-Common religion is there in the joint family. They celebrate all the religious activities jointly with each other. All the religious and customary functions are done by them jointly.

5. Recreation-Joint family is big in size. That is why they enjoy the company of each other. In the evening they sit with each other, have dinner together, which helps in the recreation.

6. Economic Advantage-All the members of the joint family work jointly and there is no division of land or labor among them. Males work outside and females work at home. All the functions of the family have been done by the members of the family.

7. Security of Members-All the members in a joint family work together. That is why if any member falls sick then other members take care of him. At the death of any member, they take joint responsibility for his wife and children. They help each other economically. In this way, there is no tension of unemployment or any physical ailment in the joint family. They help each other with every type of problem.

Question 22.
What are the demerits of the joint family?
Answer:
1. Lack of personality and Non-development of individual-Person cannot develop his personality while living in a joint family. The main reason behind this is that he cannot test his abilities. He cannot do anything according to his wish. In fact, he works according to the wish of others. Every member in a joint family has a say in each other life and so, an individual’s own choice is not given credit in joint families. In this way, he never gets a chance to develop his personality.

2. Lower Status of Women-Joint families are generally patriarchal families in which males are dominant. Females are just restricted to produce children or to take care of the kitchen. It is so because she is economically dependent upon others. In this way status of women is low.

3. Carelessness-In joint family everyone knows that whether they will work or not, they will get bread. In this condition, some members a lot and some sit idle. In this condition, some take responsibility for the whole family and others waste their time by not doing anything.

4. Conflicting Situation-In joint family conflicts and quarrels generally takes place. With this, the peace of the family comes to an end. Sometimes members of the family hardly speak to each other. In this condition sometimes joint family comes to an end.

Hence, we can say that in a joint family common property is there but no one takes its responsibilities, and in the situation of conflict sometimes property is also destroyed. Some other problems are also emerging because of joint family. That is why joint family is losing its importance. Social mobility has come because of industrialization, urbanization, and means of transport, etc.

Question 23.
Why are joint families disintegrating?
Answer:
1. Importance of Money-In modern society, man has changed his lifestyle by getting an education because of which he needs a lot of money. So, he started earning a lot of money by using his capabilities so that he could be able to raise his status and living standard. This thinking has encouraged him to separate from joint family.

2. Impact of Westernisation-British empire had brought a lot of changes in India. They promoted the Western culture. Western education helped the people to form independent views. That is why people started to live separately. Individualistic interests also developed.

3. Industrialisation-Modern society is also known as an industrial society. Industries came into being. Production of houses was gone to industries. Machines can do a lot of work with less expenditure. Artisans started to move towards industries. In this way, they started to separate from their roots. Now, there was no need to adapt to their traditional occupation. That’s why people started to move towards cities for jobs and joint families started to disintegrate.

4. Social mobility-In modern societies, man can achieve status according to his capabilities. That is why he has to do a lot of hard work. Every person wants to rise upwards in society. In joint family status of the person is ascribed and that is why there is no need to work hard. There is a lot of social mobility in society and thus, the joint families started to disintegrate. Now everyone thinks about his own family. The sense of individualism has been developed. He wants to make his personality himself. In this way, social mobility has encouraged the disintegration of joint family.

5. Development in the means of transportation-Means of transport has been developed. In earlier times man was unable to move from one place to another due to lack of means of transport and communication. That is why they lived a confined life. But with the development of means of transport, this problem was solved. Now they can live in different places and even then they can contact each other very easily. That is why the joint family started disintegrating.

6. Some other reasons-Another reason for the disintegration of the joint family was the conflicts and quarrels of the family because of which there had always been a tense atmosphere in the society. Because of which people started to leave the families. Many functions of the family have been taken by other institutions like stitching was done in the family but now tailor stitches the clothes. Children are going to creches if a mother is going out for a job. The government has also passed some laws with which females get complete independence in society. Now, the husband cannot treat his wife violently. She can five separately by getting a divorce. Both males and females have equal rights over the property. A girl has the same rights over the property of the father as the boy.

Question 24.
What is meant by Nuclear Family? Explain it with characteristics.
Answer:
Nuclear families are of great importance in modern societies. The nuclear family is a very limited group, on the basis of numbers, in which husband, wife, and their unmarried children live together. Nuclear families came into being after social changes. They are also known as basic families. Many sociologists have given their views about them which are given below:

According to G.P. Murdock, “The nuclear family consists typically of a married man and woman with their offsprings, although in individual cases one or more additional persons may reside with them.”

According to I.P. Desai, “Nuclear family is a family in which the members are not related to their kin through or by property or income or the right and obligations pertaining to them, as are expected and related by kinship.”

According to Haris, “Nuclear family is a small group of those people who except fulfilling the biological role fulfills the institutional responsibilities towards each other which are expected from them to do in the family.”

So on the basis of these definitions, we can say that husband, wife, and their unmarried children are there in a nuclear family. When children get married then they also start living in their separate families. These families are connected on the basis of marriage. They are small in size. In this type of family, only eight types of relations are included.

Characteristics of a nuclear family
1. Limited Size-Nuclear families are formed on the basis of the number of members. That is why the size of a nuclear family is small. In this husband, wife, and their unmarried children are included.

2. Limited relations-In nuclear families, 8 types of relations are included like: Husband-wife, Mother-son, Father-son, Mother-daughter, Father-daughter, sister- sister, sister-brother, brother-brother. In these types of families, blood relations are important. They have formal relations with other members of the family.

3. Common authority-Every member of the family has equal authority. Everyone shares advice and views in the family to solve the problems of the family. In this way, father alone does not have all the responsibilities. In this more importance is given to individual capabilities. Responsibilities and duties are shared among all the members.

4. Importance of all members of the family-In a nuclear family, only two generations live together. In this type of family, everyone has got an equal status. Labour is equally divided among the members of the family. Children have more importance in nuclear families. Parents wish to give good education to their children and they take care of every type of need of their children.

5. Independent Social Unit-The mam characteristic of a nuclear family is its independent nature. It means that the members of the family are dependent upon other members for their needs but they are not dependent upon other relatives. In this way, these families are of independent nature.

Question 25.
What is Kinship? Give its definitions.
Answer:
‘Kin’ is an English word that has been taken from the word ‘Cynn’ which means relative. Sociologists and anthropologists have kept the word ‘relatives’ while studying kinship. In the word kinship, all the relatives are included like blood relatives, relatives made by marriage, etc.

In simple words, according to Sociology and Anthropology, Kinship System is a collection of rules which regulates the nomenclature, heiress, heritage, marriage, extramarital relations, place of living, etc. and determines the status of a person in any specific society or in-group from the point of view of blood relation and relatives.

It means that the system of social relations developed and made by blood relations or affinal relations. Its clear meaning is that all those relations which have been made by blood or by marriage are part of the Kinship system. For example, mother-father, uncle-aunt, maternal uncle-aunt, brother-sister, father-in-law, mother-in-law, brother-in-law, sister-in-law, etc. All these are relatives and are part of Kinship.

For the broader meaning of Kinship, it is necessary for us to see the definition of Kinship given by different scholars.

Definitions

1. According to Levi Strauss, “Kinship is an arbitrary system of the idea.”
2. According to Charles Winick, “Kinship system may include socially recognized relationship based on supposed as well as actual genealogical ties.”
3. According to Redcliffe Brown, “All those relations which came as a result or made because of family and marriage are the part of Kinship System.”

On the basis of the given definitions, we can say that two persons are relatives. If their ancestor is one, then, they are the offsprings of one person. The kinship system is the system of relatives that is based on blood relations or affinal relations. The kinship system is cultural and its structure is different in the whole world. It is a system of specific relation groups in which all the relatives are included which understand the responsibilities towards each other. In this way system of social relations established by socially sanctioned real or made up blood and affinal relatives is known as the Kinship system.

Question 26.
Explain in brief the significance of the kinship system.
Answer:
1. With the help of the Kinship system, rights, marriage, family, production, and method of consumption, rights of political power are determined in tribal and agricultural societies. Even in urban societies, we can see the importance of Kinship relations at the time of marriage and family festivals.

2. Kinship, family, and marriage are very deeply related to each other. With the help of the Kinship system, we can determine who marries whom and which name would be given to which relation. From Kinship only we can come to know about the nomenclature, clan, and the family of the person.

3. Family life, relations of family, nomenclature, clan, and rituals related to birth and death are determined by the Kinship, and who will perform all the rituals is also determined by Kinship. For example, in the rituals related to marriage big brother, mother, and sister of the father are of great importance. Who will be the heir of the person is also determined by the Kinship. At the time of social functions, festivals, relatives are of great importance because at these the relationships are strengthened.

4. Kinship system gives strength to society. The kinship system plays an important role in making social organization. If the Kinship system would not be there then the social system will break down and there will be chaos in the society.

5. Kinship system determines sexual relations. Sexual relations in the Kinship system are restricted in our society. If the Kinship system would not be there then there will be a lot of illegal relations and children in the society and social disorders will prevail in society.

6. Kinship System plays an important role in the determination of marriage. You are not supposed to marry in your clan, how many relatives would be left from the mother’s side and the father’s side all depend upon the Kinship system. If this system would not be there then no one will obey the rules related to marriage.

7. Kinship system gives mental peace to an individual. Yet in modern industrial society, our views have been changed from emotional to practical but still, man is tied with the Kinship ties. Humans are based on the group and Kinship. Without Kinship, man is just like a dead man. Our relatives know us very well. They accept themselves as part of the family. If we are in any trouble, then our relatives would help us. Only by living with our relatives we become happy and feel pleasure in their company.

In this way, we can say that Kinship is of great importance in our society. Nothing will be left in our society if we take out the Kinship system from it.

Question 27.
Explain briefly the different categories of the kinship system.
Answer:
On the basis of closeness and distance from the person, Kinship has been divided into different categories. In Kinship, we do not have the same type of relations with all the relatives. The type of relations which we have with our parents, husband-wife, and children, we cannot have that type of relations with our uncle, aunt, nephew, etc. We do not have very close relations with them. On the basis of this closeness and distance, Kinship has been divided into three categories which are given below:

1. Primary Relatives: In the first category of Kinship primary relatives like husband-wife, father-son, mother-son, mother-daughter, father-daughter, sister-sister, brother-sister, brother-brother are included. According to Murdock, they are of 8 types. They are primary because relations among them are direct and very close.

2. Secondary Relatives: Some of our relatives are primary like mother-father, brother-sister, etc., and have direct relations with them. But some relatives are there who are not directly related to us. In fact, we are connected with them with the medium of our primary relatives like a brother, of the mother, brother or father, sister or mother, sister of father, husband of sister, wife or brother, etc. We do not have a very close relationship with them. They are our secondary relatives. According to Murdock, these are of 33 types.

3. Tertiary Kins: First relatives are primary. Then, comes the secondary relatives which are related to us through primary relatives. The third types are those relatives which are primary relatives of secondary relatives. Like a son of the brother of father, wife or mother’s brother, wife of the brother of father, .etc. According to Murdock, these are of 151 types.

So in this way, there are three types of categories of Kinship.

Here we are providing Class 12 Economics Important Extra Questions and Answers Chapter 6 Rural Development. Economics Class 12 Important Questions are the best resource for students which helps in class 12 board exams.

Class 12 Economics Chapter 6 Important Extra Questions Rural Development

Rural Development Important Extra Questions Very Short Answer Type

Question 1.
Define rural development.
Answer:
Rural development refers to the action plan for the economic and social upliftment of rural areas.

Question 2.
Name the key initiatives required for infrastructural development in rural areas.
Answer:
Key initiatives required for rural development include:

• Expansion of rural credit
• Development of irrigation facilities
• Construction of roads
• Organised agricultural marketing
• Information dissemination

Question 3.
What has happened to the agriculture output during 2007-12?
Answer:
During 2007-12, agricultural output has grown at 3.2 percent.

Question 4.
Define credit.
Answer:
Credit is the amount of money available to be borrowed by an individual, which must be paid back to the lender at some point in the future.

Question 5.
What is the function of micro-credit programme?
Answer:
Micro-credit programme provides small loans to the needy for self-employment projects that generate income.

Question 6.
Classify rural credit.
Answer:
Rural credit can be classified into:
(i) Institutional Sources – commercial banks, regional rural bank, cooperatives, land development
(ii) Non-institutional Sources – moneylenders, traders, employers, relatives and friends

Question 7.
Why are moneylenders a popular source of rural credit?
Answer:
The moneylenders are a popular source of rural credit due to easy availability of credit.

Question 8.
When was NABARD set up?
Answer:
NABARD was set up in 1982.

Question 9.
What is agricultural marketing?
Answer:
Agricultural marketing is a process that involves the assembling, storage, processing, transportation, packaging, grading and distribution of different agricultural commodities across the country.

Question 10.
Name a few defects of agricultural marketing.
Answer:
Defects of agricultural marketing include:
(i) Sale at only village level
(ii) Inadequate transport facilities
(iii) Malpractices
(iv) Inadequate credit facilities

Question 11.
What is cooperative marketing?
Answer:
Cooperative marketing is a system through which a group of farmers join together to undertake some or all the processes involved in bringing goods to the consumer instead of individual sale.

Question 12.
What is agricultural diversification?
Answer:
Agricultural diversification refers to change in cropping pattern and/ or a shift of workforce from agriculture to other allied activities and non-agriculture sector.

Question 13.
Name the category that accounts for the largest share in livestock in India.
Answer:
Poultry accounts for the largest share in livestock in India with 58 per cent (in 2012).

Question 14.
What is operation flood?
Answer:
Operation flood is a system in which all the farmers pool their milk produced as per quality-based grading and process and market the same to urban centres through cooperatives.

Question 15.
What is the position of India in the production of fruit and vegetables?
Answer:
India is the second-largest producer of fruits and vegetables in the world.

Question 16.
What is the state of women in employment in fishery sector?
Answer:
Women are not involved in active fishing. However, they form about 60 per cent of the workforce in export marketing and 40 percent in internal marketing.

Question 17.
List some highly remunerative employment options for women in rural areas.
Answer:
Highly remunerative employment options for women in rural areas include:
(i) Flower harvesting
(ii) Nursery maintenance
(iii) Propagation of fruits and flowers
(iv) Food processing
(v) Hybrid seed production and tissue culture

Question 18.
What is sustainable development?
Answer:
Sustainable development is the process of development which fulfils the needs of the present generation without reducing the ability of the future generation to fulfil their own needs.

Question 19.
Define organic farming.
Answer:
Organic farming includes the entire system of farming that restores, maintains and enhances the ecological balance.

Question 20.
Why is the demand for organically grown food rising?
Answer:
The demand for organically grown food is rising in order to enhance food safety throughout the world.

Question 21.
List the major concerns related to promotion of organic farming.
Answer:
The major concerns related to promotion of organic farming are:
(i) Inadequate infrastructure
(ii) Problem of marketing the products

Rural Development Important Extra Questions Short Answer Type

Question 1.
Why is rural development important?
Answer:
The real progress of a country does not mean simply the growth and expansion of industrial urban centres. It is mainly the development of the villages, the rural sector. Development of rural sector is important because:
(i) agriculture is the major source of livelihood in the rural sector of India;
(ii) more than two-third of India’s population depends on agriculture; and
(iii) bulks of raw materials for industries come from agriculture and rural sector.
However, the level of agricultural productivity is so low that one-third of rural India still lives in abject poverty. Thus, it is important to develop rural India if our nation has to realise real economic and social progress.

Question 2.
What efforts has the government made for rural development?
Answer:
The government has made the following efforts for rural development:
(i) Prepared a road map for agricultural diversification with focus on horticulture, floriculture, animal husbandry and fisheries

(ii) Started Vishesh Krishi Upaj Yojana on I st April, 2004 as a special agricultural produce scheme with the objective of promoting exports of fruits, vegetables, flowers, minor forest produce, dairy and poultry ’

(iii) Focused on micro irrigation, finance, insurance and rural credit

(iv) Strengthened agricultural marketing infrastructure

Question 3.
Discuss the changes that have taken place in Indian agriculture and rural sector since initiation of reforms.
Answer:
After the initiation of reforms, the growth rate of agriculture sector decelerated to about 3 percent per annum during the 1991 -2012. Decline in public investment has been the major reason for this. The share of agriculture sector’s contribution to GDP has been declining while the population dependent on this sector has not shown any significant change.

There has been inadequate infrastructure, lack of alternate employment opportunities in the industry or service sector and increasing casualisation of employment, which further impedes rural development. During 2007-12, agriculture output has grown only at 3.2 percent.

Question 4.
What are the essentials of rural development?
Answer:
The essentials of rural development have been shown with the help of a diagram.

Question 5.
What are the limitations of non-institutional sources of credit?
Answer:
The following are the limitations of non-institutional sources of credit are:
(i) Moneylenders and traders exploit small farmers by charging very high rate of interest on loans.
(ii) They manipulate poor farmers’ credit accounts and keep them in debt trap.
(iii) They compel the farmers to sell their produce to him at low prices.
(iv) They do not issue any receipt after the payment is made by the farmer.
(v) They get the word cone by members of farmers family without any wages

Question 6.
What are significant features of moneylenders as a source of rural credit?
Answer:
The significant features of moneylenders as a source of rural credit are:
(i) Moneylender provides credit both for productive and unproductive purposes.
(ii) The money lending method is very simple. He provides loans for short-term, medium-term as well as long-term requirements of the farmer, without any legal formalities.
(iii) Moneylender provides loans with or without security.
(iv) If the farmer pays the interest on a regular basis, the moneylender does not compel the farmer to pay back the principal amount.

Question 7.
Discuss in brief the defects of agricultural credit.
Answer:
In India, the main defects in the agricultural credit system are as given under:
(i) Agriculturist needs to pay a very high rate of interest.
(ii) Moneylenders and traders are still the prominent source of agricultural finance.
(iii) There is a lack of coordination among the various agencies of rural credit.
(iv) Despite many institutions, adequate agricultural credit is not available. The institutional finance is only 50 percent of the total requirements of the farmer.
(v) The commercial banks hesitate to provide credit to agriculturist. Banks demand collateral as the risk involved is greater.
(vi) There is no systematic arrangement in New Agricultural Finance Corporations for agricultural credit.

Question 8.
Write a short note on the role and performance of SHGs as a source of credit. ;
Answer:
The formal credit delivery mechanism has not only proven inadequate but has also not been fully integrated into the overall rural social and community development. A vast proportion of poor rural households tend to remain out of the credit network as some kind of collateral is required to take loan from banks.

Self-Help Groups (SHGs) have emerged to fill the gap in the formal credit system. A typical SHG consists of 15-20 members. These members usually belong to one neighbourhood, who meet and save regularly. Saving per member depends on the ability of the people to save.

The SHG can extend these savings as small loans or micro credit to the needy members from the group I itself. Although the group charges interest on these loans, it is still less than what the moneylenders charge. Total SHG savings with banks increased from ₹ 23.9 billions as on 31st March, 2006 to around ₹ 70 billion as on 31 st March, 2011.

Question 9.
What should the rural banking sector do to improve the situation of rural credit in India?
Answer:
In order to improve the situation of rural credit in India, the rural banking sector should change their approach from being merely lenders to building up relationship banking with the borrowers. Developing the habit of savings and efficient utilisation of financial resources must be encouraged among the farmers.

Question 10.
What was the need for state intervention to regulate the activities of the private traders?
State intervention is required to regulate the activities of the private traders
Answer:
(i) to ensure adherence to standardised and open marketing procedures
(ii) to avoid collusion between brokers and traders that may cause disadvantage to the farmers
(iii) to ensure use of standardised weights and measures
(iv) to promote fair marketing fees; and
(v) to keep a check regarding unauthorised deductions from the purchase price payable to the framers.

Question 11.
Explain the policy instruments introduced by the government to safeguard the interests of farmers.
Answer:
Government has developed certain policy instruments to safeguard the interests of farmers. These instruments are:
(i) Fixation of Minimum Support Price (MSP): MSP is announced before the sowing season and assures agricultural producers against any sharp fall in farm prices. It provides long-term guarantee to the farmer.

(ii) Buffer Stock: The Food Corporation of India purchases wheat and rice from the farmers in states where there is surplus production and maintain it as buffer stock. Buffer stock is maintained by the government to stabilise prices. It helps in making the foodgrains available in the deficit areas and hence, resolves the problem of food shortage during adverse weather conditions or during the periods of calamity.

(iii) Public Distribution System (PDS): The PDS operates through fair price shops, also known as ration shops. The government offers essential commodities like wheat, rice, sugar, kerosene, edible oils, coal, cloth, etc. at a price below the market price to poor section of the society.

Question 12.
Write a short note on cooperative marketing societies.
Answer:
The cooperative marketing societies has been started in India in 1954 to assure reasonable prices to the farmers for their produce. The aim was to eliminate all the existing intermediaries from the market. It is a method of linking credit, farming and processing in order to help the farmers to get maximum advantage.

Cooperative marketing is responsible for collecting the produce from the members and disposing it off in the mandi (market) at a favourable time. The cooperative marketing societies, therefore, remove the defects of the present marketing system. The government sets up a cooperative credit society, commonly known as the Primary Agricultural Cooperative Societies (PACS), which can be initiated with 10 or more persons of the village. PACSs also provide loans to the farmers for productive purposes.

Question 13.
Discuss the objectives of cooperative marketing societies.
Answer:
The objectives of cooperative marketing societies are:
(i) To sell the products of its members at fair prices and distribute the sale proportionately among the members
(ii) To provide loans to members in need
(iii) To provide marketing information to the members
(iv) To provide seeds, fertilisers, pesticides and other inputs to the members
(v) To stabilise the prices of agricultural products

Question 14.
What is the need for agricultural diversification?
Answer:
Agricultural diversification is essential due to the following reasons:
(i) There is a greater risk associated with exclusive dependence on farming for livelihood.
(ii) Diversification provides productive sustainable livelihood options to rural people, thereby realising higher level of incomes for them.

Question 15.
Show the distribution of poultry and livestock in India with the help of a diagram.
Answer:
Poultry accounts for the largest share with 58 per cent. Cattle and buffalo account for 24 per cent of India’s total livestock. India had about 300 million cattle, including 108 million buffaloes, in 2012. Other animals which include camels, asses, horses, ponies and mules are in the lowest rung. The diagram below shows the distribution of poultry and livestock in India in 2012.

Question 16.
What are the benefits of horticulture?
Answer:
The benefits of horticulture are given below:
(i) Horticultural crops play a vital role in providing food and nutrition.
(ii) India has emerged as a world leader in producing a variety of fruits like mangoes, bananas, coconuts, cashew nuts and a number of spices.
(iii) India is the second largest producer of fruits and vegetables in the world.
(iv) Economic condition of many farmers engaged in horticulture has improved.
(v) Horticulture has become a means of improving livelihood for many unprivileged classes.
(vi) It provides highly remunerative employment options for women in rural areas.

Question 17.
Why should organic farming be adopted?
Answer:
Modern farming methods make excessive use of chemical fertilisers and pesticides, which led to loss of soil fertility; soil, water and air pollution, and high chemical contents in foodgrains. Therefore, there is an urgent need to conserve the environment and eco-system and hence, promote sustainable development.

Organic farming is an eco-friendly and inexpensive farming technology,which can be easily purchased by small and marginal farmers. It restores, maintains and enhances the ecological balance. Moreover, organically grown food is considered more nutritious and healthier than chemically grown food.

Rural Development Important Extra Questions Long Answer Type

Question 1.
Discuss the key issues of action plan for rural development in India.
Answer:
The following are the key issues of action plan for rural development in India:
(i) Land Reforms: Land reforms are the measures to bring about changes in the ownership of land holdings to encourage equity. Land reforms providing a land system conducive for agricultural development should not only be enacted but also be faithfully implemented. The official land tenure system must aim at land to the tiller as self-cultivation can induce maximum improvement in farming.

(ii) Poverty Alleviation: Action plan for rural development includes high priority to poverty alleviation in the rural areas. For the overall development of each locality and in the rural areas special schemes like MNREGA should be launched.

(iii) Human Capital Formation: Human capital formation is still a major task in rural areas of the Indian economy. India has a huge pool of manpower resources but the available manpower lacks basic skill and training. Therefore, in order to make the -available resources strong and efficient, the action plan for rural development should consider the challenging issues like literacy, healthcare, education, on the job training, etc.

(iv) Development of Infrastructure: Development of infrastructure includes the following:

• Provision of credit facilities to the farmers in the rural areas
• Permanent water supply throughout the year in the areas receiving less or low rainfall
• Availability of agricultural research facilities to enhance the crop yield and productivity
• Development of efficient means of transport, communication and power resources.

Question 2.
Explain the various non-institutional sources of rural credit in India.
Answer:
The various non-institutional sources of rural credit in India are:
(i) Moneylenders: Moneylenders typically offer small personal loans to farmers at high rates of interest. They charge high interest rates due to the level of risk involved. They lend to people with limited access to banking activities.

(ii) Traders and Commission Agents: Traders and commission agents are also non-institutional source of agricultural finance. They advance loans to agriculturists for productive purposes against their crops without any legal agreement. They force them to sell their produce at low prices and charge heavy commission for themselves.

(iii) Landlords: Small and marginal farmers mostly depend on landlords for credit in order to satisfy their day-to-day requirements; However, with the abolition of zamindari system, this source has lost its importance to a large extent.

(iv) Relatives: Sometime the farmers have to borrow from their relatives and friends to meet their financial crisis. This type of loan does not carry interest.

Question 3.
What are the sources of institutional credit in India? Explain.
Answer:
The sources of institutional credit in India include the following:
(i) Government: The government provides loans to the farmer for his short-term as well as long
term needs. Normally, these loans are given at the time of natural calamities such as droughts, floods, etc. Long-term loans are given for making permanent improvements and a very low rate of interest is charged for the same.

(ii) Cooperative Credit: The cooperative credit societies meet the requirements of only short-term credit. However, to bring about permanent improvement on land and to introduce modern technology, long-term heavy investment is required. Land development banks are supposed to advance long-term loans for this purpose.

(iii) Commercial Banks: After the nationalisation of 14 big banks in 1969, the commercial banks have also started taking keen interest in farm financing. A number of schemes have been introduced to help the farmers so that they may introduce the modern,technology in agriculture. Most families covered by these banks are big landlords, who could give adequate security to the bank in the form of land mortgage.

(iv) Regional Rural Banks: A new rural credit agency has’ been set up to provide loan to the agriculturists. RRBs have been opened by the joint efforts of the central and state governments and commercial banks. These banks have been set up-in the rural areas where enough credit has not been available but there are substantial potentialities of agricultural development.

(v) National Bank for Agriculture and Rural Development: NABARD was set up on 12th July, 1982 as an apex body to look after the credit needs of the rural sector. It has got an authority to oversee the functioning of the cooperative sector through its agricultural credit department. It provides long-term loans by way of refinance of land development banks, cooperative banks, commercial banks and regional rural banks.

(vi) Kisan Credit Card (KCC) Scheme: This scheme was introduced in 1998-99 and it has made rapid progress, with the banking system issuing more than 556 lakh cards by November, 2005. This scheme has helped in augmenting the flow of short-term crop loans for seasonal agricultural operations to farmers. Besides the existing facilities, the KCC scheme has been enlarged to include long-term loans for agriculture and allied activities along with a component to meet the consumption needs.

Question 4.
Suggest some measures for the improvement of rural credit.
Answer:
The following measures should be adopted for the improvement of rural credit:
(i) Coordination: The different agencies of agricultural credit must be coordinated to facilitate efficient disbursal and utilisation of financial resources.

(ii) Deposit Insurance Scheme: The cooperative banks should start the Deposit Insurance Scheme to attract the maximum deposits from the public.

(iii) Cooperative Marketing Societies: The credit and cooperative marketing societies should be integrated. It will ensure the paying back of loans as the farmers sell their produce to cooperative markets.

(iv) Increase in Capital Resources: It is necessary to increase capital resources of the cooperative credit societies to meet the need of the farmers.

(v) Easy Availability of Loans: The loan process should be made simpler. The main reason for popularity of the moneylender is simple methods of lending the amount. The formalities should be minimised.

(vi) Efficient Management: The credit agencies should be efficiently managed. The managers should have complete knowledge about agriculture and they should be sympathetic towards

(vii) Promotion of Savings: To promote savings, the farmers should be given incentives. The government should use its mechanism to encourage farmers to save more and avoid unnecessary spending.

Question 5.
Explain the significance of agricultural marketing in rural development.
Answer:
An efficient marketing system is of great significance for the development of agricultural economy like that of India. Proper marketing of agricultural products is undoubtedly favourable to the farmers because it ensures fair price for their produce. The fair price encourages them to produce for the market. The needs of urban sector are better satisfied and the process of industrialisation gets a boost.

As a result, the income of the farmers rises, increasing their demand for industrial output. Thus, improvement in farm marketing helps the process of development. Naturally, an important problem of Indian agriculture concerns the marketing of its produce. In order to increase the income of the farmers and to promote economic growth of India, it is necessary that the problem of agricultural marketing be solved.

It is a fact that economic prosperity depends upon a sound system of marketing. In India, it becomes important because some states produce much more than their requirements and have to supply to other deficit parts of the country.

Question 6.
Discuss the conditions required for efficient agriculture marketing in India.
Answer:
Following are the conditions necessary for efficient marketing in India:
(i) Storage Facilities: Efficient marketing needs adequate storage facilities so that they should be able to wait for times when they could get better prices of their produce. Moreover, they do not have to dispose off their surplus produce immediately after harvesting.

(ii) Freedom from Moneylenders: In India, there is large number of moneylenders who compel farmers for distress sale. Thus, credit facilities should be extended to save them from the clutches of moneylenders.

(iii) Transportation Facilities: Farmers should have cheap and adequate transport facilities so that they may be able to take their surplus to the regulated markets instead of selling it away at the village level.

(iv) Reduced Intermediaries: The number of intermediaries should be minimised so that the profits of middlemen may be reduced. This in turn will increase the returns to the farmers.

(v) Adequate Information: Farmers should have adequate and clear information regarding the market conditions as well as about the prevailing prices otherwise they may be cheated. There should be organised and regulated markets where they can directly sell their produce.

Question 3.
Discuss the importance of cooperative marketing in India.
Answer:
The following are the advantages of cooperative marketing in India:
(i) End of Middle Man: The agricultural cooperative marketing has ended the presence of middle man in the process of sale and purchase of products. With the help of cooperative marketing, S agriculturists get fair price of their products.

(ii) Increased Bargaining Power of the Producers: With the help of cooperative marketing, farmers are less prone to exploitation and malpractices. Instead of marketing their produce individually, they market it together through one agency. This increases their bargaining’strength as merchants and intermediaries.

(iii) Direct Dealing with Final Buyers: The cooperatives can altogether skip the intermediaries and enter into direct dealing with the final buyers, which eliminates exploiters and ensure fair prices to both the producers and the consumers.

(iv) Standardisation and Gradation of Agricultural Produce: This task could be done more easily by a cooperative agency than by an individual farmer. Thus, each member can take advantages of standardisation and gradation of produce.

(v) Control Over the Supply of Produce: Prices of the produce fall down during cropping season
due to excess supply in the market. The cooperative marketing societies provide storage facilities. As a result, there remains a control over the supply of produce. The farmers can wait for better prices.

(vi) Credit Facilities: The cooperative marketing societies provide credit facilities to the farmers to save them from the necessity of selling their produce immediately after harvesting. This ensures better returns to the farmers.

(vii) Provide Training of Commercial Methods: The cooperative societies also provide training to the farmers for cooperative efforts and commercial methods in the marketing, which develops the cooperative tendencies in the rural areas.

(viii) Advertisement and Publicity: Through advertisements and publicity services, cooperative marketing increases the sale of farmer’s produce, which enlarges the size of the market.

Question 4.
Explain the advantages and limitations of organic farming.
Answer:
Advantages of Organic Farming
(i) Inexpensive Process: Organic agriculture substitutes costlier agricultural inputs with locally produced organic inputs, which are cheaper and hence, generate more return on investment.

(ii) Generates Higher Income: It generates higher income by means of international exports as the demand for organically grown products is rising.

(iii) Healthier Food: Organically grown food has more nutritional value than chemically grown food. It, therefore, provides us with healthier and tastier foods.

(iv) Creates Employment: Since organic farming organic farming requires is a labour-intensive process, it will solve the problem of unemployment.

(v) Eco-friendly: Organic goods are pesticide-free and produced in an environmentally sustainable way.

Limitations of Organic Farming

• Yields from organic farming are less compared to the yield from modern agriculture farming, at least in the initial years.
• Organic produce may also have more blemishes and a shorter shelf life than sprayed produce.
• Infrastructural facilities are inadequate to encourage small farmers to adapt organic farming
• There is a limited choice to produce off-season crops in organic farming.

Rural Development important Extra Questions HOTS

Question 1.
Explain the working of an SHG formed in Tamil Nadu.
Answer:
TANWA is a Tamil Nadu Women in Agriculture project,- which was initiated in Tamil Nadu to train women in the latest agricultural techniques. It induces women to actively participate in raising agricultural productivity and family income.

At a farm, women’s group in Thiruchhirapalli run by Anthoniammal, trained women successfully make and sell the vermicompost and earn money from this venture. With the accumulated savings, they promote small-scale household activities such as mushroom cultivation, soap manufacture, doll making or other income generating activities.

Here we are providing Class 12 Economics Important Extra Questions and Answers Chapter 5 Human Capital Formation In India. Economics Class 12 Important Questions are the best resource for students which helps in class 12 board exams.

Class 12 Economics Chapter 5 Important Extra Questions Human Capital Formation In India

Human Capital Formation In India Important Extra Questions Very Short Answer Type

Question 1.
Define human capital.
Answer:
Human capital is the stock of knowledge and skills that make the workers productive,

Question 2.
List the sources of human capital.
Answer:
The sources of human capital are:
(i) Education
(ii) Health
(iii) On-the-job training
(iv) Labour market information
(v) Migration

Question 3.
Why do individuals invest in education?
Answer:
Individuals invest in education to increase their future income.

Question 4.
What is the main reason for rural-urban migration?
Answer:
Unemployment is the main reason for rural-urban migration.

Question 5.
Define physical capital.
Answer:
Physical capital refers to the manufactured assets used in the process of production such as machinery, equipment, buildings, vehicles, etc.

Question 6.
Define economic growth.
Answer:
Economic growth refers to the increase in real national income of a country.

Question 7.
List the indicators of educational achievement in a country.
Answer:
The indicators of educational achievement in a country are:
(i) Adult literacy rate
(ii) Primary completion rate
(iii) Youth literacy rate
(iv) Net attendance ratio
(v) Teacher-pupil ratio

Question 8.
What are the indicators used to measure the health status of a country?
Answer:
The indicators used to measure the health status of a country are:
(i) Life expectancy rate
(ii) Mortality rate

Question 9.
What percentage was set as the goal for expenditure on education?
Answer:
It was set at 6 percent of the GDP.

Question 10.
What is the present literacy rate of India?
Answer:
The literacy rate of India (201 1-12) is 74 percent.

Question 11.
Name die institutions that regulate the education sector in India.
Answer:
NCERT, AICTE and UGC regulate the education sector in India.

Question 12.
Which institutions regulate health sector in India?
Answer:
ICMR and Health departments regulate the health sector in India.

Question 13.
What was the rate of unemployment among rural youth female with education up to secondary level and above, as per NSSO data in the year 2011-12?
Answer:
30 percent

Question 14.
What was the rate of unemployment among youth with education up to primary level, as per NSSO data in the year 201 1-12?
Answer:
3 to 6 percent

Question 15.
Why is the level of unemployment is the highest among educated youth?
Answer:
The level of unemployment is the highest among educated youth as the standard of higher education institutions is very low.

Human Capital Formation In India Important Extra Questions Short Answer Type

Question 1.
List the benefits of education.
Answer:
Following are the benefits of education:
(i) It gives a better social status and pride.
(ii) It enables wise decision-making.
(iii) It enhances social outlook and develops understanding to accept the changes taking place in society.
(iv) It stimulates innovations and facilitates adaptation of new technologies.

Question 2.
Discuss the need for human capital.
Answer:
The population of the nation takes charge of all economic activities such as production, distribution and consumption. Human capital, therefore, may be recognized as one of the production factors, which can generate additional values. An economy needs sufficient human capital in the form of educated, trained and competent people to function and accomplish its goals. As we move deeper into a knowledge-based economy that depends on information, knowledge and high-level skills, human capital becomes increasingly important.

Question 3.
What are the different forms of health expenditure?
Answer:
The different forms of health expenditure include expenditure on:

• Preventive medicine – medical practices which are designed to avoid or avert diseases
• Curative medicine – health care practices that are used to treat patients with the intent of curing them, not just reducing their pain
• Social medicine – medical practices concerned with the role of social factors in the occurrence, prevention and treatment of disease
• Provision of clean drinking water
• Good sanitation

Question 4.
Discuss the need for expenditure on information as a source of human capital.
Answer:
People need to incur expenditure in order to acquire information related to equity markets, labour markets, education, health and other related markets. For instance, expenditure is incurred while collecting information related to education such form fees, transportation cost, consultancy fee, etc. Information plays an important role in making decisions regarding investments in human capital.

Moreover, expense is incurred for efficient utilisation of the acquired stock of human capital. The i money spent on obtaining information related to any kind of markets is a source of human capital formation.

Question 5.
What are the advantages of human capital formation?
Answer:
The following are the advantages of human capital formation:

• It increases efficiency and income generating capacity of labour
• It improves technical knowledge.
• It enlarges the size of business.
• It increases the level of production.
• It changes social outlooks.
• It decreases cost of production.

Question 6.
“Higher income leads to high level of human capital.” Comment
Answer:
Higher income leads to development of high level of human capital and vice versa. In other words, high level of human capital leads to growth of income. It is believed that even a large population, which is trained and educated, can become an asset in accelerating economic growth and ensuring social change in desired directions.

However, it is difficult to establish a relation of cause and effect from the growth of human capital to economic growth as the rate of growth human capital in developing countries has been faster than the rate of growth of per capita real income.

Question 7.
Discuss India’s potential as a knowledge economy.
Answer:
India has the potential to become a leading knowledge-based economy. With its youth population and growing information and communication technology (ICT) industry, India can become a major global knowledge-based economy. However, there is a need for measures such as:

• Supportive laws
• Improved infrastructure
• Removal of barriers to trade and investment
• Up-skilling of labour force
• Higher spending in research and development
• Innovative financing for small businesses and enterprises

A shift to knowledge-based growth would help developing country like India avoid the middle-income trap and also address the issue of rising income inequalities.

Question 8.
Give an account of government’s expenditure on education.
Answer:
During 1952-2014, education expenditure as percentage of total government expenditure increased from 7.92 to 15.7. As percentage of GDP, expenditure on education increased from 0.64% to 4.1 3% over the same period. However, the increase in education expenditure has not been uniform. The share of elementary education is the highest in the total education expenditure while that of higher/ tertiary education is the least.

Question 9.
What initiatives have been taken by the government to provide equal access of education to all?
Answer:
The following initiatives have been taken by the government to provide equal access of education . The Government of India enacted the ‘Right to Education Act’ in 2009 to make free education a fundamental right of all children in the age group of 6-14 years.

Government of India has started levying a 2 per cent ‘education cess’ on all Union taxes. The revenue earned from education cess is spent on elementary education.The government sanctions a large outlay for the promotion of higher education and new loan ; schemes for students to pursue higher education.

Question 10.
State the problems of human capital formation in India.
Answer:
The problems of human capital formation are:
(i) High cost of human capital formation
(ii) Low levels of adult and agricultural education
(iii) Less priority to secondary education
(iv) Limited stock of human capital formation

Question 11.
Why is it important to promote education for women in India?
Answer:
It is important to promote education for women in India due to the following reasons:
(i) It helps in improving women’s economic independence and their social status.
(ii) Women education has a favourable impact on fertility rate and women and child health care.
(iii) Educated woman can provide better guidance to her children.

Human Capital Formation In India Important Extra Questions Long Answer Type

Question 1.
Differentiate between human capital and physical capital.
Answer:
Following are the points of difference between human capital and physical capital:

Question 2.
Explain the various sources of human capital.
Answer:
Following are the sources of human capital:
(i) Education: Investment in education is considered as one of the source of human capital. Without education, human beings have only brutal manpower, in the form of physical labour. Investment in education gives human beings additional skills to do the same job.

It converts human beings into human capital, which enhances the labour productivity. This investment in education will ultimately increase the income of human beings in future.

(ii) Health: Health is another significant source of human capital. The health of a person affects human capital. A sick person, without access to medical facilities, is compelled to abstain from work and there is a loss of productivity. Expenditure on health directly increases the supply of healthy labour force and hence, a source of human capital formation. The various forms of health expenditure are:

• Preventive medicine such as vaccination
• Curative medicine such as interventions during illness
• Social medicine such as spread of health literacy
• Provision of clean drinking water
• Good sanitation

(iii) On-the-job Training: Firms incur expenditure on providing on-the-job training to their workers. Training imparts technical skills and know-how among the workers while working at the actual work site. On-the-job training helps in enhancing the productivity of the workers and facilitates better utilisation of raw materials. It enables workers to absorb values and standards of an organisation. The workers may be trained by either of the following two methods:

• Training within the firm under the supervision of a skilled worker
• Off-campus training

(iv) Migration: People migrate in search of jobs that fetch them higher salaries than what they may get in their native places. For instance, engineers and doctors migrate to other countries for higher salaries that they may get in such countries.

Migration involves transportation cost, higher cost of living in the migrated place and psychic cost of living in an unknown socio-culture set¬up. However, the increased earnings at the new place outweigh the cost of migration. Hence, expenditure on migration is also a source of human capital formation.

(v) Labour Market Information: People need to incur expenditure in order to acquire information related to equity markets, labour markets, education, health and other related markets. For instance, expenditure is incurred while collecting information related to education such form fees, transportation cost, consultancy fee, etc.

Information plays an important role in making decisions regarding investments in human capital. Moreover, expense is incurred for efficient utilisation of the acquired stock of human capital. The money spent on obtaining information related to any kind of markets is a source of human capital formation.

Question 3.
Explain the role of human capital formation in economic development.
Answer:
The role of human capital formation in economic development is discussed below:

(i) Increase in the Efficiency of Labour: Investment in human capital through education, health, training, etc. increases the efficiency of labour. This, in turn, helps in achieving the path of economic development.

(ii) Enlarged Size of Business: The size of business can be enlarged by efficient entrepreneurs and innovators. An entrepreneur becomes efficient by investment in human capital and this efficiency ultimately leads to economic development.

(iii) Increase in Production: Increase in the total output produced by a country leads to economic development. Human capital formation produces able and efficient persons who use their knowledge, skills and efficiency to increase the production.

(iv) Change in Social Outlook: Spread of education and health facilities enhances social outlook and develops understanding to accept the changes taking place in society. These positive changes also contribute significantly towards economic development.

(v) Reduced Production Cost: Reduction in the production cost is essential for the economic development. Human capital formation helps to decrease the production cost.

Question 4.
Briefly describe the two reports that point out the fact that further human capital formation in India will move its economy to a higher growth trajectory.
Answer:
Two independent reports on the Indian economy have identified that India would grow faster due to its strength in human capital formation.
(i) According to a report – ‘Global Growth Centres’- published by Deutsche Bank, India will emerge as one among four major growth centres in the worid by the year 2020.

The report supports the view that increase in human capital is crucial to achieving increases in GDP and hence, it states that between 2005 and 2020 we expect a 40 per cent rise in the average years of education in India.

(ii) World Bank’s report, ‘India and the Knowledge Economy Leveraging Strengths and Opportunities’, states that India should make a transition to the knowledge economy.

According to the report, Indian economy has all the key ingredients required for making this transition such as, a critical mass of skilled workers, a well-functioning democracy and a diversified science and technology infrastructure. Moreover, it is expected that the per capita income of India will increase from approximately US $ 1000 in 2002 to US $ 3000 in 2020 if it uses its knowledge as much as Ireland does.

Question 12.
What are the objectives and functions of NCERT, UGC, AICTE and ICMR.
Answer:
The objectives and functions of different organisations are as below:
(i) National Council of Educational Research and Training (NCERT): NCERT is an autonomous organization set up in 1961 by the Government of India to assist and advise the Central and State Governments on policies and programmes for qualitative improvement in school education.

(ii) University Grants Commission (UGC): The UGC, set up in 1953, has the unique distinction of ‘ being the only grant-giving agency in the country, which has been vested with two responsibilities:
providing funds and coordinating, determining and maintaining standards in institutions of higher education.

(iii) All India Council for Technical Education (AICTE): AICTE was set-up in November 1945 as a national level apex advisory body to conduct survey on the facilities on technical education and to promote development in the country in a coordinated and integrated manner.

(iv) Indian Council of Medical Research (ICMR): The Indian Research Fund Association (IRFA), re-designated as ICMR in 1949 in New Delhi, is the apex body in India for the formulation, coordination and promotion of biomedical research. It is one of the oldest medical research bodies in the world.

Question 13.
Suggest measures to reduce problems of human capital formation.
Answer:
The following are the measures should be adopted to reduce the problems of human capital formation in India:
(i) More Emphasis on Technical Education: Technical education makes a person income earner soon. On thd other hand, college or university education is increasingthe number of unemployed; Therefore, more emphasis should be given on technical education to reduce the problem of human capital formation.

(ii) Need for Government-run Programmes in Education and Health Sector: For the removal of different problems of human capital formation, there is a need for the different formsi of.government intervention in the education and health sector. In this regard, government has started many programmes in education sector such as Sarva Shiksha Abhiyart (SSA), MidMeal Scheme, Kasturba Gandhi Balika Vidyalaya (KGBV), Prarambhik Shiksha Kosh (PSK), etc. The main objective of these programmes is to make universal access to all. In the health sector government has also started many disease control programmes.

(iii) Regulation of Fees Structure in Education and Health Care Institutions: it is very essential for the government to regulate the fees structure in education and health cane institutions, because the fee structures are very low in these institutions and the expenditure is very high, wtoebms regarded as unproductive for the country.

As a result, government sector is making great losses, Government’s income is falling short of its expenditure. For the development purpose onto remove the problems of human capital, it is very essential to regulate the fees structure in these sectors. The fees structure of private sector in education and health care institutions is manifofel more than the government sector. Therefore, it is necessary to regulate the fees structure in the government’s education and health institutions.

(iv) Change in Educational System: For the success of human capital formation, basic changes and improvements in educational system are essential. Technical and secondary education shouldai be compulsory and higher education should be provided to the able persons.

(v) Compulsory Secondary Education: For the success of human capital formation, secondary education should be compulsory to all, which will definitely help in increasing the productivity and efficiency

(vi) Proper Motivation. For the success of human capital formation programmes, proper motivation, is required. This will help the people to adopt modern techniques of production To conclude, for the development of any country, human capital formation is very important.Government of India is also investing a lot in the field of education and health for human.capitisformation.

Human Capital Formation In India Important Extra Questions HOTS

Question 1.
‘School dropouts are giving way to child labour.’ Discuss how this is a loss of human capital.
Answer:
Poverty forces many children into work. Child labour includes work that deprives children of their childhood and is harmful to their mental and physical development School dropouts prevent children from getting equipped with literacy skills and give way to child labour. These children generally work at dhabas, houses and construction sites. Being illiterate further propels the poverty cycle and hence, the process of human capital formation remains incomplete.